9/11 Gold Silber 2 Stück 3D Münze Terrorismus Angriff Magnet Medaille ungewöhnlich einzigartig UK

EUR 0,14 2 Gebote 2d 22h 38m 23s, EUR 6,93 Versand, 30-Tag Rücknahmen, eBay-Käuferschutz
Verkäufer: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (33.562) 99.8%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 315241708255 9/11 Gold Silber 2 Stück 3D Münze Terrorismus Angriff Magnet Medaille ungewöhnlich einzigartig UK. September 11th 2001 Stand Up 3D Coin Uncirculated Silver & Gold Plated Commemoration Coin Depicts the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center on the New York City Skyline The twin towers are in silver with the rest of the coin in Silver There is a small magnetic on the coin so The Twin Towers Can be removed from the coin and when placed over the magnet stands up to make an amazing ornament It also has the date it was destroyed September 11th 2001 and the words "In Memory" It has the words "Even Grief Recedes with Time, but we will never forget" The Back of the coin shows the freedom tower which replaced the twin towersT The USA Flag the stars and the stripes in the back ground with the Manhatton Skyline The bottom half of the coin in the Hudson River The reflection of the Freedom Tower in the water is the Twin Tower The words around the coin are "NYPD Counter Terrorism Burea" with stars "Rember the Past - Defend the Future" and "World Trade Center Command" The coin is 40mm in diameter, weighs about  1 oz Comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder with a Deluxe Coin Jewel Case. In Excellent Condition

9/11 Gold & Silver Stand Up 3D Coin

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Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake to Remember 911
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Click here for more information.   Page semi-protected   Listen to this article From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "9/11" redirects here. For the calendar dates of 9/11, see September 11 and November 9. For other uses, see September 11 attacks (disambiguation) and 911 (disambiguation). September 11 attacks Part of terrorism in the United States Black smoke billowing over Manhattan from the Twin Towers Rescue workers climb through rubble and smoke at the World Trade Center site, and an American flag flies at left A portion of the Pentagon charred and collapsed, exposing the building's interior A fragment of Flight 93's metal fuselage with two windows in the Somerset County, Pennsylvania, forest Illuminated water falls into 9/11 Memorial south pool at sunset, and glass-clad One World Trade Center with other skyscrapers in the background From top, left to right: The Twin Towers burning Rescue workers at Ground Zero Collapsed section of the Pentagon Fragment of the Flight 93 fuselage 9/11 Memorial south reflecting pool and One World Trade Center Location New York City, U.S.; Arlington, Virginia, U.S.; Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, U.S. Date September 11, 2001; 21 years ago c. 8:14 a.m.[a] – 10:03 a.m.[b] (EDT) Target World Trade Center (AA 11 and UA 175) The Pentagon (AA 77) U.S. Capitol or White House (UA 93; unsuccessful due to passenger revolt) Attack type Islamist terrorism Aircraft hijackings Suicide attacks Mass murder Deaths 2,996 (2,977 victims + 19 al-Qaeda terrorists) Injured 6,000–25,000[c] Perpetrators Al-Qaeda,[3] led by Osama bin Laden (see also: responsibility) No. of participants 19 Motive Several; see Motives for the September 11 attacks and Fatawā of Osama bin Laden Accused Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Walid bin Attash, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Ammar al-Baluchi and Mustafa Ahmad al Hawsawi (see also: United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, et al.) Convicted Zacarias Moussaoui Imad Yarkas Mounir el-Motassadeq (see also: Trials related to the September 11 attacks) vte al-Qaeda attacks Aden hotelsUS embassiesUSS Cole9/11GhribaFaylaka IslandBali (1st)MombasaRiyadhCasablancaMarriott HotelIstanbulMadridKhobarAmmanQahtaniyaIslamabadCamp ChapmanIn Amenas The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11,[d] were four coordinated suicide terrorist attacks carried out by the militant Islamist extremist network al-Qaeda against the United States on September 11, 2001. That morning, 19 terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners scheduled to travel from the New England and Mid-Atlantic regions of the East Coast to California. The hijackers crashed the first two planes into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, which were two of the top five-tallest buildings in the world at the time. Following the first two impacts, the third and fourth flights were similarly coordinated to attack targets in the Washington metropolitan area. The third plane succeeded in crashing into the Pentagon, the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense in Arlington County, Virginia. The fourth was intended to strike a nearby federal government building in the national capital of Washington, D.C., but crashed in rural Pennsylvania following a passenger revolt. The attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and instigated the multi-decade global war on terror. The first impact was that of American Airlines Flight 11, which crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan at 8:46 a.m. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03,[e] the World Trade Center's South Tower was hit by United Airlines Flight 175. Both 110-story skyscrapers collapsed within an hour and forty-one minutes,[f] bringing about the destruction of the remaining five structures in the WTC complex, as well as damaging or destroying various other buildings surrounding the towers. A third flight, American Airlines Flight 77, crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m., causing a partial collapse. The fourth and final flight, United Airlines Flight 93, flew in the direction of Washington, D.C. Alerted to the previous attacks, the passengers retaliated in an attempt to take control of the aircraft, forcing the hijackers to crash the plane in a Stonycreek Township field, near Shanksville at 10:03 a.m. Investigators determined that Flight 93's target was either the United States Capitol or the White House. Within hours of the attacks, the Central Intelligence Agency determined that al-Qaeda was responsible. The United States formally responded by launching the war on terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had not complied with U.S. demands to expel al-Qaeda from Afghanistan and extradite its leader, Osama bin Laden. The U.S.'s invocation of Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty—its only usage to date—called upon allies to fight al-Qaeda. As U.S. and NATO ground forces swept through Afghanistan, bin Laden fled to the White Mountains, where he narrowly avoided capture by U.S.-led forces.[11] Although bin Laden initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he formally claimed responsibility for the attacks.[3] Al-Qaeda's cited motivations included U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq. After evading capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was killed by the U.S. military on May 2, 2011. U.S. and NATO troops remained in Afghanistan until 2021. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured thousands more, and gave rise to substantial long-term health consequences while also generating at least $10 billion in infrastructure and property damage.[12][13] It remains the deadliest terrorist attack in human history, the deadliest aviation-related disaster of all time, and the single deadliest incident for both firefighters and law enforcement personnel in the history of the United States, with 340[14] and 72[15] killed, respectively. The destruction of the World Trade Center and its environs seriously harmed the New York City economy and induced global market shocks. Many other countries strengthened anti-terrorism legislation and expanded their powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site (colloquially "Ground Zero") took eight months and was completed in May 2002, while the Pentagon was repaired within a year. After delays in the design of a replacement complex, the One World Trade Center began construction in November 2006 and opened in November 2014.[16][17] Memorials to the attacks include the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City, the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County, Virginia, and the Flight 93 National Memorial at the Pennsylvania crash site. Background Further information: Responsibility for the September 11 attacks See also: Jihadist extremism in the United States and 9/11 Commission Report Al-Qaeda Main article: Al-Qaeda Further information: Jihad and Wahhabism The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Osama bin Laden traveled to the central Asian country[18] to volunteer, viewing the war as a holy cause to help fellow Muslims (in Afghanistan) defeat Communist invaders (the Soviets).[19] Bin Laden organized fellow Arab mujahideen (the "Afghan Arabs") to resist the Soviets until that country's exit from Afghanistan in 1989.[20] The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) funneled several billion dollars worth of weapons to the indigenous Afghan mujahideen resistance, a portion of which bled to the Arab volunteers.[21] However, no direct U.S. aid to bin Laden or any of his affiliates has ever been established.[22] In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia.[23] In a second fatwā in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War.[24] Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances were reversed. Muslim legal scholars "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.[24][25] Osama bin Laden Main article: Osama bin Laden Further information: Militant activity of Osama bin Laden bin Laden c. 1997–1998 Bin Laden orchestrated the attacks. He initially denied involvement, but later recanted his false statements.[3][26][27] Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by him on September 16, 2001: "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."[28] In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks.[29] On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said: It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim ummah [sic] (nation) has occurred. ... It is important to hit the economy (of the United States), which is the base of its military power...If the economy is hit they will become reoccupied. — Osama bin Laden but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.[30] Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004, bin Laden used a taped statement to publicly acknowledge al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the United States. He admitted his direct link to the attacks and said they were carried out because ... we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security, we undermine yours.[31] Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.[32][33] Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with one of the attacks' chief planners, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, as they made preparations for the attacks.[34] The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the September 11 attacks, but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya.[35][36] After a 10-year manhunt, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that bin Laden was killed by American special forces in his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, on May 1, 2011.[37] Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Main article: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003 Journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that in April 2002 al-Qaeda member Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement in the attacks, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[38][39][40] The 2004 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel".[41] Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack.[42][43] Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA. He was then held at multiple CIA secret prisons and Guantanamo Bay, where he was interrogated and tortured with methods including waterboarding.[44][45] During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress.[40][46] In a letter presented by his lawyers at the U.S. District Court in Manhattan on July 26, 2019, Mohammed indicated an interest in testifying about Saudi Arabia's role in the 9/11 attacks and helping the victims and families of the victims of 9/11 in exchange for the United States not seeking the death penalty against him. James Kreindler, one of the lawyers for the victims, raised questions over the usefulness of his testimony.[47] Other al-Qaeda members Further information: Trials related to the September 11 attacks In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden; Khalid Sheikh Mohammed; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; Abu Turab al-Urduni; and Mohammed Atef.[48] To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks. On September 26, 2005, the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.[49] On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced Abu Dahdah's penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.[50] Also in 2006 Moussaoui, who some originally suspected might have been the assigned twentieth hijacker, was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole in the United States.[51][52] Mounir el-Motassadeq, an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, served 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks. He was released in October 2018 and deported to Morocco.[53] The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks.[54] Mohamed Atta; Marwan al-Shehhi; Ziad Jarrah; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; and Said Bahaji were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.[55] Motives Main article: Motives for the September 11 attacks Further information: Fatwa of Osama bin Laden See also: Islam and violence and Islam and war Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others, calling for the killing of Americans,[24] are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.[56] In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to America", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's motives for their attacks include: U.S. support of Israel[57][58] The "attacks against Muslims" in Somalia Support of the Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict Support for Israeli "aggression" against Muslims in Lebanon Support of Russian "atrocities against Muslims" in Chechnya Pro-American governments in the Middle East (who "act as your agents") being against Muslim interests Support of Indian "oppression against Muslims" in Kashmir The presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia[59] The sanctions against Iraq[57] The Environmental destruction[60][61][62] After the attacks, bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri released additional videotapes and audio recordings, some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks. Two particularly important publications were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to America"[63] and a 2004 videotape by bin Laden.[64] Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".[65] In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, al-Qaeda wrote "for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples."[66] In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.[67] One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.[68] In the 1998 fatwā, al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade" among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."[66] The fatwā declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."[24][69] In 2004, Bin Laden claimed that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War.[70][71] Some analysts, including political scientists John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, also claimed that U.S. support of Israel was one motive for the attacks.[58][67] In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.[72][73] Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Some authors suggested the "humiliation" that resulted from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy was rendered especially visible by globalization[74][75] and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued that 9/11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution.[76][77] Documents seized during the 2011 operation that killed bin Laden included a few notes handwritten by bin Laden in September 2002 with the heading "The Birth of the Idea of September 11". In these notes he describes how he was inspired by the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990 on October 31, 1999, which was deliberately crashed by co-pilot Gameel Al-Batouti. "This is how the idea of 9/11 was conceived and developed in my head, and that is when we began the planning" bin Laden continued, adding that no one but Abu Hafs and Abu al-Khair knew about it at the time. The 9/11 Commission Report identified Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the architect of 9/11, but he is not mentioned in bin Laden's notes.[78] Planning Main article: Planning of the September 11 attacks Ground zero and surrounding area as seen from directly above depicting where the two planes impacted the towers Map showing the attacks on the World Trade Center The attacks were conceived by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996.[79] At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan.[80] The 1998 African embassy bombings and bin Laden's February 1998 fatwā marked a turning point of al-Qaeda's terrorist operation,[81] as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States. In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot.[82] Mohammed, bin Laden, and Mohammed Atef, the deputy of bin Laden, held a series of meetings in early 1999.[83] Atef provided operational support, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.[80] Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles for lack of time.[84][85] Diagram showing the attacks on the World Trade Center Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support and was involved in selecting participants.[86] He initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In early 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California, but both spoke little English; performed poorly in flying lessons; and eventually served as secondary ("muscle") hijackers.[87][88] In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany, arrived in Afghanistan. The group included Mohamed Atta; Marwan al-Shehhi; Ziad Jarrah; and Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[89] Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West.[90] New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license.[91] Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing.[92] Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi.[93]: 6–7  They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training.[93]: 7  Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000.[93]: 6  Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa.[93]: 4, 14  Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed.[93]: 16  The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida at Huffman Aviation.[93]: 6  In the spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States.[94] In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible.[95] Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.[96] There have been a few theories that 9/11 was selected by the hijackers as the date of the attack because of its resemblance to 9-1-1, the phone number used to report emergencies in the United States. However, Lawrence Wright wrote that the hijackers chose the date when John III Sobieski, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, began the battle that turned back the Ottoman Empire's Muslim armies that were attempting to capture Vienna on 11 September 1683. During 1683, Vienna was the seat of the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg monarchy, both major powers in Europe at the time. For Osama bin Laden, this was a date when the West gained some dominance over Islam, and by attacking on this date, he hoped to make a step in Islam "winning" the war for worldwide power and influence.[97] Prior intelligence Main article: September 11 intelligence before the attacks In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate Walid bin Attash ("Khallad") contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance. The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action. The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence about the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to Bangkok, but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting but was told: "This is not a matter for the FBI."[98] By late June, senior counter-terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.[99] In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them "Something really spectacular is going to happen here. soon." He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the Defense Department to go to "Threat Condition Delta".[100][101] Clarke later wrote: "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States. Somewhere in FBI, there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States ... They had specific information about individual terrorists from which one could have deduced what was about to happen. None of that information got to me or the White House."[102] On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's Counterterrorism Center (CTC) requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. The CIA never responded.[103] The same day in July, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participant's presence in the U.S. The CIA gave Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting with criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the FBI were refused more details on their significance, and they were not given Mihdhar's date of birth nor passport number.[104] In late August 2001, Gillespie told the INS, the State Department, the Customs Service, and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in searching for the duo, hindering their efforts.[105] Also in July, a Phoenix-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and FBI agents in New York alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges". The agent, Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training.[106] In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that al-Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S.; "months later", Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big Wedding" and that it involved airplanes.[107] On August 6, 2001, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief ("PDB"), designated "For the President Only", was entitled "Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S." The memo noted that FBI information "indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks".[108] In mid-August, one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI about Zacarias Moussaoui, who had asked "suspicious questions". The FBI found that Moussaoui was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. Their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause.[109] The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance to reveal "sensitive sources and methods" such as tapped phones.[110] Testifying before the 9/11 Commission in April 2004, then-Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the "single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents".[111] Clarke also wrote: "[T]here were... failures to get information to the right place at the right time."[112] Attacks For a chronological guide, see Timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks. Flight paths of the four planes Early on the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 hijackers took control of four commercial airliners (two Boeing 757s and two Boeing 767s) en route to California (three of them headed to LAX in Los Angeles and one to SFO in San Francisco) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia.[113] Large planes with long coast-to-coast flights were selected for hijacking because they would have more fuel.[114] The four flights were: American Airlines Flight 11: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 7:59 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the northern façade of the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46 a.m. United Airlines Flight 175: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 8:14 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the southern façade of the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9:03 a.m.[e] American Airlines Flight 77: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8:20 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the western façade of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, at 9:37 a.m. United Airlines Flight 93: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Newark International Airport at 8:42 a.m. en route to San Francisco, with a crew of seven and 33 passengers, not including four hijackers. As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers, the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, near Shanksville, at 10:03 a.m. Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath, beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center.[115] Operator Flight number Aircraft type Time of departure* Time of crash* Departed from En route to Crash site Fatalities (There were no survivors from the flights) Crew Passengers† Ground§ Hijackers Total‡ American Airlines 11 Boeing 767-223ER 7:59 a.m. 8:46 a.m. Logan International Airport Los Angeles International Airport North Tower of the World Trade Center, floors 93 to 99 11 76 2,606 5 2,763 United Airlines 175 Boeing 767-222 8:14 a.m. 9:03 a.m.[e] Logan International Airport Los Angeles International Airport South Tower of the World Trade Center, floors 77 to 85 9 51 5 American Airlines 77 Boeing 757-223 8:20 a.m. 9:37 a.m. Washington Dulles International Airport Los Angeles International Airport West wall of Pentagon 6 53 125 5 189 United Airlines 93 Boeing 757-222 8:42 a.m. 10:03 a.m. Newark Int'l Airport San Francisco International Airport Field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville 7 33 0 4 44 Totals 33 213 2,731 19 2,996 * Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−04:00) † Excluding hijackers § Including emergency workers ‡ Including hijackers The four crashes See also: Media documentation of the September 11 attacks Collapse of the towers as seen from across the Hudson River in New Jersey At 7:59 a.m., American Airlines Flight 11 took off from Logan International Airport in Boston.[116] Fifteen minutes into the flight, five hijackers armed with boxcutters took over the plane, injuring at least three people (and possibly killing one)[117][118][119] before forcing their way into the cockpit. The terrorists also displayed an apparent explosive device in order to frighten the hostages into submission, while additionally spraying mace into the cabin to further hinder any efforts to resist.[120] Back at Logan, United Airlines Flight 175 took off at 8:14 a.m., more or less the same time as Flight 11's hijacking.[121] Hundreds of miles southwest at Dulles International Airport in Fairfax and Loudoun Counties, Virginia, American Airlines Flight 77 left the runway at 8:20 a.m.[121] Flight 175's journey proceeded normally for 28 minutes until 8:42 a.m., when another group of five hijacked the plane, murdering both pilots and stabbing several crew members before assuming control of the aircraft. As was the case with Flight 11, the hijackers used bomb threats to instill fear into the passengers and crew[122] and sprayed chemical weapons to disable any opposition.[123] Concurrently, United Airlines Flight 93 departed from Newark International Airport in New Jersey;[121] originally scheduled to pull away from the gate at 8:00 a.m., the plane was running 42 minutes late. At 8:46 a.m., Flight 11 became the first plane to reach its target when it was deliberately crashed into the north face of the World Trade Center's North Tower (1 WTC),[124] although the initial presumption by many was that this was merely an accident.[125] At 8:51 a.m., shortly after the North Tower was struck and only minutes following the hijacking of Flight 175, American Airlines Flight 77 was also taken over by another group of five who forcibly entered the cockpit 31 minutes after takeoff.[126] Although the hijackers were equipped with knives,[127] there were no reports of anyone on board actually being stabbed unlike the first two planes, nor did the two people who made phone calls mention the use of mace or a bomb threat of any kind. Seventeen minutes after the first plane crashed into the North Tower, Flight 175 was flown into the South Tower's southern facade (2 WTC)[128] at 9:03 a.m.,[e] instantly proving to the entire world that the first crash was not an accident but that a terrorist attack was underway.[129][130] After waiting 46 minutes to make their move—a holdup that proved disastrous for the terrorists when combined with the delayed takeoff from the runway—four men aboard Flight 93 struck suddenly, killing at least one passenger[131] before storming the cockpit and seizing control of the plane at 9:28 a.m., turning the plane eastbound and setting course for Washington, D.C.[132] Much like their counterparts on the first two flights, the fourth team also used bomb threats to get their way and again filled the cabin with mace.[133] Nine minutes after Flight 93's hijacking, Flight 77 was crashed into the west side of The Pentagon.[134] Because of the two delays,[135] the passengers and crew of Flight 93 had time to be made aware of the previous attacks through phone calls to the ground. Knowing their lives were forfeited rendered the bomb threat moot, and an uprising was hastily organized in the hopes of taking control of the aircraft, with an assault on the hijackers being launched at 9:57 a.m.[136] Within minutes, they had fought their way to the front of the cabin and began breaking down the cockpit door. Fearing their captives would gain the upper hand, the hijackers rolled the plane and pitched it into a nosedive,[137][138] crashing into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03 a.m. The plane was around twenty minutes away from reaching D.C. at the time of the crash, and its target is believed to have been either the Capitol Building or the White House.[114][136] The east and north faces of Two World Trade Center (South Tower) immediately after being struck by United Airlines Flight 175 0:52 United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into WTC 2 Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin air phone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used mace, tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.[139] Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.[113][140] According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted Leatherman-type utility knives with locking blades (which were not forbidden to passengers at the time), but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers.[141][142] A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.[113] On at least two of the hijacked flights―American 11 and United 93―the terrorists tried to ensure nobody would resist by claiming over the PA system that they were taking hostages and were returning to the airport to have a ransom demand met, an obvious attempt to deceive those on-board into staying put by way of a false hope. Both of these attempts fell on deaf ears, however, as the hijacker pilots in both instances (Mohamed Atta[143] and Ziad Jarrah,[144] respectively) keyed the wrong switch and mistakenly transmitted their messages to ATC instead of the people on the plane as intended, in the process tipping off the flight controllers that the planes had been hijacked. Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire-induced structural failure. Although the South Tower was struck 17 minutes after the North Tower, the plane's impact zone was far lower and into a corner, with the unevenly-balanced additional structural weight causing it to collapse first at 9:58 a.m.,[145]: 80 [146]: 322  having burned for 55 minutes[g] in the fire caused by the crash of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel. The North Tower lasted another 29 minutes before sharing the same fate as its twin at 10:28,[h] collapsing 1 hour and 41 minutes[f] after being struck by American Airlines Flight 11. When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building (7 WTC), damaging the building and starting fires. These fires burned for nearly seven hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7 WTC collapsed at 5:21 p.m.[151][152] The west side of The Pentagon sustained significant damage. 3:12 Security camera footage of American Airlines Flight 77 hitting The Pentagon.[153] The plane hits The Pentagon approximately 86 seconds after the start of this recording. At 9:42 a.m., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S., and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately.[154] All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico, and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days.[155] The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers. Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day, one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C.[156] Another jet (Delta Air Lines Flight 1989) was suspected of having been hijacked, but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.[157] In an April 2002 interview, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House.[158] During the planning stage of the attacks, Mohamed Atta (Flight 11's hijacker and pilot) thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77).[159] Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and The Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control".[160] Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots.[159] If any pilot could not reach his intended target, he was to crash the plane.[114] Casualties Main articles: Casualties of the September 11 attacks and Lists of victims of the September 11 attacks The attack on the World Trade Center's North Tower single-handedly made 9/11 the deadliest act of terrorism in world history.[13] Taken together, the four crashes caused the deaths of 2,996 people (including the hijackers) and injured thousands more.[161] The death toll included 265 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors); 2,606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area; and 125 at The Pentagon.[162][163] Most who died were civilians; the rest included 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists.[164][165] After New York, New Jersey lost the most state citizens.[166] More than 90 countries lost citizens in the attacks;[167] for example, the 67 Britons who died were more than in any other terrorist attack anywhere.[168] Smoke billowing out of The Pentagon, where 125 workers died. The Washington Monument can be seen in the distance. In Arlington County, Virginia, 125 Pentagon workers died when Flight 77 crashed into the building's western side. 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel, many of whom worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy. The Army lost 47 civilian employees; six civilian contractors; and 22 soldiers, while the Navy lost six civilian employees; three civilian contractors; and 33 sailors. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) civilian employees died, and one Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) contractor.[169][170][171] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at The Pentagon.[172] In New York City, more than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, between 1,344[173] and 1,402[174] people were at, above or one floor below the point of impact and all died. Hundreds were killed instantly the moment the plane struck.[175] The estimated 800 people[176] who survived the impact were trapped and died in the fires or from smoke inhalation; fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames; or were killed in the building's collapse. The destruction of all three staircases in the North Tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone from the impact zone upward to escape. 107 people not trapped by the impact died.[177] When the plane struck between floors 93 and 99, the 92nd floor was also rendered inescapable when the crash severed all elevator shafts while debris falling from the floors above blocked the stairwells, ensuring the deaths of all 69 workers on the final floor below the impact zone. In the South Tower, around 600 people were on or above the 77th floor when Flight 175 struck and few survived. As with the North Tower, hundreds were killed at the moment of impact. However, unlike those in the North Tower, the estimated 300 survivors[176] of the crash were not technically trapped by the damage done by Flight 175's impact, but most were either unaware that a means of escape still existed or were unable to use it. One stairway, Stairwell A, narrowly avoided being destroyed as Flight 175 crashed through the building, allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact (including Stanley Praimnath, a man who saw the plane coming at him) and four more from the floors above to escape. New York City 9-1-1 operators who received calls from people inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result, told callers not to descend the tower on their own.[178] In total 630 people died in the South Tower, fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower.[177] In stark contrast to the North Tower, where over 200 people fell to their deaths from the floors trapped by Flight 11's impact,[179] only 3 were spotted jumping or falling from the upper floors of the South Tower.[180]: 86  Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced because some occupants decided to leave the building immediately following the first crash, and because Eric Eisenberg, an executive at AON Insurance, made the decision to evacuate the floors occupied by AON (floors 92 and 98–105) in the moments following the impact of Flight 11. The seventeen minute gap allowed over 900 of the 1,100 AON employees present on-site to evacuate from above the 77th floor before the South Tower was struck; Eisenberg was among the nearly 200 who did not escape. Similar pre-impact evacuations were carried out by companies such as Fiduciary Trust, CSC, and Euro Brokers, all of whom had offices on floors above the point of impact. The failure to order a full evacuation of the South Tower after the first jet crash into the North Tower was described by USA Today as "one of the day's great tragedies".[181] As exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man, more than 200 people fell to their deaths from the burning towers, most of whom were forced to commit suicide by jumping in order to escape the extreme heat, fire and smoke.[182] Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in the hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked.[183] No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment, thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.[184] At the World Trade Center complex, a total of 414 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires, while another law enforcement officer was separately killed on-board United 93 as it crashed. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a chaplain and two paramedics.[185] The New York City Police Department (NYPD) lost 23 officers.[186] The Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) lost 37 officers.[187] Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services (EMS) units were killed.[188] Almost all of the emergency personnel who lost their lives at the scene that day were killed as a result of the towers collapsing, with the exception of one who died when a civilian who fell from the upper floors of the South Tower landed on him.[189] Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the North Tower's 101st–105th floors) lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.[190] Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,[191][192] and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed.[193] The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45 a.m.[194][page needed][195] Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.[196] Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.[197] The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".[198] Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building. In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill, where 72 more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims.[199][200][201] The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner's facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum.[needs update] In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims.[201] On August 7, 2017, the 1,641st victim was identified as a result of newly available DNA technology,[202] and a 1,642nd on July 26, 2018.[203] Three more victims were identified in 2019 and further two in 2021. As of September 2021, 1,106 victims are yet to be identified.[204][205] Damage Further information: Collapse of the World Trade Center World Trade Center site (Ground Zero) with an overlay showing the original building locations Remains of 6, 7, and 1 WTC on September 17 Aerial view of The Pentagon Along with the 110-floor Twin Towers, numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church.[206] The North Tower, South Tower, the Marriott Hotel (3 WTC), and 7 WTC were destroyed. The U.S. Customs House (6 World Trade Center), 4 World Trade Center, 5 World Trade Center, and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The Deutsche Bank Building (still popularly referred to as the Bankers Trust Building) on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007.[207][208] The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage.[207] The last fires at the World Trade Center site were extinguished on December 20, exactly 100 days after the attacks.[209] The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was deconstructed.[210][211] The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage from the attacks, and was reopened in 2012.[212] Other neighboring buildings (including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building) suffered major damage but have been restored.[213] World Financial Center buildings, One Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored.[214] Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, with only WCBS-TV maintaining a backup transmitter on the Empire State Building, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.[206][215] The PATH train system's World Trade Center station was located under the complex. As a result, the entire station was demolished completely when the towers collapsed, and the tunnels leading to Exchange Place station in Jersey City, New Jersey, were flooded with water.[216] The station was rebuilt as the $4 billion World Trade Center Transportation Hub, which reopened in March 2015.[217][218] The Cortlandt Street station on the New York City Subway's IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line was also in close proximity to the World Trade Center complex, and the entire station, along with the surrounding track, was reduced to rubble.[219] The latter station was rebuilt and reopened to the public on September 8, 2018.[220] The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and the ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse.[221] As the airplane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.[222][223] The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second.[224] Debris from the tail section penetrated the furthest into the building, breaking through 310 feet (94 m) of the three outermost of the building's five rings.[224][225] Rescue efforts Main article: Maritime response following the September 11 attacks See also: List of emergency and first responder agencies that responded to the September 11 attacks Patrol Boat Hocking of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on its way providing assistance to the site of World Trade Center on 11 September 2001. The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the World Trade Center. Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians.[226][227][228] The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel and deployed its aviation unit. Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.[226][229] As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.[229][230] With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders. After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings. Due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.[227] Reactions Main article: Reactions to the September 11 attacks See also: Timeline for September following the September 11 attacks The 9/11 attacks resulted in immediate responses to the event, including domestic reactions; closings and cancellations; hate crimes; Muslim-American responses to the event; international responses to the attack; and military responses to the events. An extensive compensation program was quickly established by Congress in the aftermath to compensate the victims and families of victims of the 9/11 attacks as well.[231][232] Immediate response Further information: U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks See also: Communication during the September 11 attacks President George W. Bush is briefed in Sarasota, Florida, where he learned of the attacks unfolding while he was visiting an elementary school. Eight hours after the attacks, Donald Rumsfeld, then U.S. Secretary of Defense, declares "The Pentagon is functioning." At 8:32 a.m., FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they, in turn, notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). NORAD scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8:53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials, NORAD had nine minutes' notice, and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed. After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m.[233] At 10:20 a.m., Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action.[233][234][235] Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes, possibly ejecting at the last moment.[236] For the first time in U.S. history, the emergency preparedness plan called Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids (SCATANA) was invoked,[237] thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.[238] Ben Sliney, in his first day as the National Operations Manager of the FAA,[239] ordered that American airspace would be closed to all international flights, causing about 500 flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.[240] The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people.[241] Police and rescue workers from around the country took a leave of absence from their jobs and traveled to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.[242] Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.[243][244] The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent.[245] Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the attacks' aftermath, and the effects on surviving caregivers.[246][247][248] Domestic reactions Further information: U.S. government response to the September 11 attacks President Bush addressed the nation from the White House at 8:30 PM ET. The President spoke to rescue workers at Ground Zero on September 14. 34:18 During a speech to a joint session of Congress, President George W. Bush pledges "to defend freedom against terrorism", September 20, 2001 (audio only). Following the attacks, President George W. Bush's approval rating soared to 90%.[249] On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally.[250] Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist the attacks' victims, with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the victims' families. By the deadline for victims' compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.[251] Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks.[238] Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002.[252] In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history, the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002, creating the Department of Homeland Security. Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act, saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes.[253] Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement to invade citizens' privacy and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence.[254][255][256] In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the National Security Agency (NSA) was given broad powers. NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications, which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant".[257] In response to requests by various intelligence agencies, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking, obtaining, and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non-U.S. people from around the world.[258] Hate crimes See also: Islamophobic incidents and Persecution of Muslims Six days after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington, D.C.'s largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect".[259] Numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.[260][261][262] Sikhs were also subject to targeting due to the use of turbans in the Sikh faith, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on individuals, including one murder: Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, who was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in Mesa, Arizona.[262] Two dozen members of Osama bin Laden's family were urgently evacuated out of the country on a private charter plane under FBI supervision three days after the attacks.[263] According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.[264] A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17 2001. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.[265][266] Women wearing hijab were also targeted.[267] Discrimination and racial profiling Further information: Detentions following the September 11 attacks, Islamophobia in the United States, and Flying while Muslim See also: Airport racial profiling in the United States A poll of Arab-Americans, conducted in May 2002, found that 20% had personally experienced discrimination since September 11. A July 2002 poll of Muslim Americans found that 48% believed their lives had changed for the worse since September 11, and 57% had experienced an act of bias or discrimination.[267] Following the September 11 attacks, many Pakistani Americans identified themselves as Indians to avoid potential discrimination and obtain jobs (Pakistan was created as a result of the partition of India in 1947).[268] By May 2002, there were 488 complaints of employment discrimination reported to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). 301 of those were complaints from people fired from their jobs. Similarly, by June 2002, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) had investigated 111 September 11th-related complaints from airline passengers purporting that their religious or ethnic appearance caused them to be singled out at security screenings. DOT investigated an additional 31 complaints from people who alleged they were completely blocked from boarding airplanes on the same grounds.[267] Muslim American response See also: Muslim attitudes towards terrorism and Peace in Islamic philosophy Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called "upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families".[269] These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America, American Muslim Alliance, American Muslim Council, Council on American-Islamic Relations, Islamic Circle of North America, and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. Along with monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and shelter for victims.[270][271][272] Interfaith efforts Curiosity about Islam increased after the attacks. As a result, many mosques and Islamic centers began holding open houses and participating in outreach efforts to educate non-Muslims about the faith. In the first 10 years after the attacks, interfaith community service increased from 8 to 20 percent. and the percentage of U.S. congregations involved in interfaith worship doubled from 7 to 14 percent.[273] International reactions The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.[274] Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, as well as Libya and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".[275] The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.[276][277] Although Palestinian Authority (PA) president Yasser Arafat also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations of disputed size in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem.[278][279] Palestinian leaders discredited news broadcasters that justified the attacks or showed celebrations,[280] and the Authority claimed such celebration do not represent the Palestinians' sentiment, adding that it would not allow "a few kids" to "smear the real face of the Palestinians".[281][282] Footage by CNN[vague] and other news outlets were suggested by a report originating at a Brazilian university to be from 1991; this was later proven to be a false accusation, resulting in a statement being issued by CNN.[283][284] As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.[285] United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter.[286] Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.[287][288] Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.[289][290] British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.[291] A few days later, Blair flew to Washington, D.C., to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."[292] Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and traveled more than 40,000 miles (60,000 km).[293] Vladimir Putin (right) and his then-wife Lyudmila Putina (center) on November 16 The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as "illegal enemy combatants". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations.[294][295][296] On September 25, 2001, Iran's fifth president, Mohammad Khatami, meeting British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, said: "Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11." He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran (since 1979), the Iranians felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities. He also stated that "Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists."[297] According to Radio Farda's website, when the news of the attacks was released, some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran, which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran (U.S. interests-protecting office in Iran), to express their sympathy, and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning. This piece of news at Radio Farda's website also states that in 2011, on the anniversary of the attacks, the United States Department of State published a post at its blog, in which the Department thanked the Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that it would never forget Iranian people's kindness on those harsh days.[298] After the attacks, both the President[299][300] and the Supreme Leader of Iran, condemned the attacks. The BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens on their websites.[301][302] According to Politico Magazine, following the attacks, Sayyed Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, "suspended the usual 'Death to America' chants at Friday prayers" temporarily.[303] In September 2001, shortly after the attacks, some fans of AEK Athens burned an Israeli flag and unsuccessfully tried to burn an American flag. Though the American flag did not catch fire, the fans booed during a moment of silence for victims of the attacks.[304] Military operations Further information: War on terror At 2:40 p.m. on September 11, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement. According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone, Rumsfeld asked for, "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H. [Saddam Hussein] at same time. Not only UBL" [Osama bin Laden].[305] Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying, "Need to move swiftly – Near term target needs – go massive – sweep it all up. Things related and not."[306][307] In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to 9/11.[308] Nonetheless, they later invaded the country with allies, citing "Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism".[309] At the time, as many as seven in ten Americans believed the Iraqi president played a role in the 9/11 attacks.[310] Three years later, Bush conceded that he had not.[311] U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan, 2006 The NATO council declared that the terrorist attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations that satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter. This marked the first invocation of Article 5, which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind.[312] Australian Prime Minister John Howard, who was in Washington, D.C. during the attacks, invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty.[313] The Bush administration announced a War on Terror, with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks.[314] These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists, and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing.[315] On September 14, 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists. It is still in effect, and grants the President the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks or who harbored said persons or groups.[316] On October 7, 2001, the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces.[citation needed] This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban's rule of Afghanistan with the Fall of Kandahar on December 7, 2001, by U.S.-led coalition forces.[317] Osama bin Laden, who went into hiding in the White Mountains, was targeted by U.S. coalition forces in the Battle of Tora Bora, but he escaped across the Pakistani border and would remain out of sight for almost ten years.[11] The Philippines and Indonesia, among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism, also increased their military readiness.[318][319] The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow the Taliban regime, which had had conflicts with the government of Iran.[303][320] Iran's Quds Force helped U.S. forces and Afghan rebels in the 2001 uprising in Herat.[321][322][323] Aftermath Main article: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks See also: Post-9/11 Health issues Main article: Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks Survivors covered in dust after the collapse of the towers Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the Twin Towers' collapse.[324][325] Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at Ground Zero.[326][327] The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.[328] Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown.[329] Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.[330] Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.[331] There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently[when?] analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse and were living or working nearby.[332] A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30%–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.[333] Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.[334] Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the attacks' aftermath, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.[335] Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.[336] On December 22, 2010, the United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act, which President Barack Obama signed into law on January 2, 2011. It allocated $4.2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program, which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long-term health problems related to the 9/11 attacks.[337][338] The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9/11-related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program.[338] In 2020, the NYPD confirmed that 247 NYPD police officers had died due to 9/11-related illnesses. In September 2022, the FDNY confirmed that the total number of firefighters that died due to 9/11-related illnesses was 299. Both agencies believe that the death toll will rise dramatically in the coming years. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department (PAPD), the law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the World Trade Center due to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey owning the site confirmed that four of its police officers have died of 9/11-related illnesses. The chief of the PAPD at the time, Joseph Morris, made sure that industrial-grade respirators were provided to all PAPD police officers within 48 hours and decided that the same 30 to 40 police officers would be stationed at the World Trade Center pile, drastically lowering the number of total PAPD personnel who would be exposed to the air. The FDNY and NYPD had rotated hundreds, if not thousands, of different personnel from all over New York City to the pile, which exposed many of them to dust that would give them cancer or other diseases years or decades later. Also, they weren't given adequate respirators and breathing equipment that could have prevented future diseases.[339][340][341][342] Economic Main article: Economic effects of the September 11 attacks The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets.[343] The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. Reopening, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, a record-setting one-day point decline.[344] By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), at the time its largest one-week point drop in history. In 2001 dollars, U.S. stocks lost $1.4 trillion in valuation for the week.[345] In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8 billion in wages were lost in the first three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.[346] The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001, and $10.5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.[347] U.S. deficit and debt increases 2001–2008 Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center (18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced), resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans; federal government Community Development Block Grants; and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.[347] Some 31,900,000 square feet (2,960,000 m2) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.[348] Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.[349] Studies of 9/11's economic effects show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.[350][351] North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry.[352] The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq,[353] as well as additional homeland security spending, totaling at least $5 trillion.[354] Effects in Afghanistan Further information: War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), Aftermath of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021), and Killing of Ayman al-Zawahiri If there are Americans clamoring to bomb Afghanistan back to the Stone Age, they ought to know that this nation does not have so far to go. This is a post-apocalyptic place of felled cities, parched land and downtrodden people. — Barry Bearak, The New York Times, September 13, 2001[355] Most of the Afghan population was already going hungry at the time of the September 11 attacks.[356] In the aftermath of the attacks, tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan due to the possibility of military retaliation by the United States. Pakistan, already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001.[357] Thousands of Afghans also fled to the frontier with Tajikistan, although were denied entry.[358] The Taliban leaders in Afghanistan themselves pleaded against military action, saying "We appeal to the United States not to put Afghanistan into more misery because our people have suffered so much.", referring to two decades of conflict and the humanitarian crisis attached to it.[355] All United Nations expatriates had left Afghanistan after the attacks and no national or international aid workers were at their post. Workers were instead preparing in bordering countries like Pakistan, China and Uzbekistan to prevent a potential "humanitarian catastrophe", amid a critically low food stock for the Afghan population.[359] The World Food Programme stopped importing wheat to Afghanistan on September 12 due to security risks.[360] The Wall Street Journal suggested the creation of a buffer zone in an inevitable war, similarly as in the Bosnian War.[361] Presidents Donald Trump and Joe Biden during whose presidencies the U.S. ended the 2001–2021 War in Afghanistan. Under the Obama Administration a partial withdrawal took place Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al-Qaeda.[357] Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban, they permitted the coalition access to their military bases, and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al-Qaeda members.[362][363] In a speech by the Nizari Ismaili Imam at the Nobel Institute in 2005, Aga Khan IV stated that the "9/11 attack on the United States was a direct consequence of the international community ignoring the human tragedy that was Afghanistan at that time".[364] In 2011, the U.S. and NATO under President Obama initiated a drawdown of troops in Afghanistan finalized in 2016. During the presidencies of Donald Trump and Joe Biden in 2020 and 2021, the United States alongside its NATO allies withdrew all troops from Afghanistan completing the withdrawal of all regular U.S. troops on August 30, 2021, 12 days before the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks,[150][365][366] The withdrawal marked the end of the 2001–2021 War in Afghanistan. Biden said that after nearly 20 years of war, it was clear that the U.S. military could not transform Afghanistan into a modern democracy.[367] Cultural influence Main article: Cultural influence of the September 11 attacks Further information: List of cultural references to the September 11 attacks, Entertainment affected by the September 11 attacks, and Osama bin Laden in popular culture See also: Osama bin Laden (elephant) The impact of 9/11 extends beyond geopolitics and into society and culture in general. Immediate responses to 9/11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family, higher church attendance, and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of American flags.[368] The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists, and the attacks have subsequently been used as background, narrative, or thematic elements in film, music, literature, and humor. Already-running television shows as well as programs developed after 9/11 have reflected post-9/11 cultural concerns.[369] 9/11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena, despite lack of support from expert scientists, engineers, and historians.[370] 9/11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals; for some it strengthened, to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief; others started to question their faith or lose it entirely, because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion.[371][372] The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof, as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation. Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel.[373] Anti-Muslim hate crimes rose nearly ten-fold in 2001 and have subsequently remained "roughly five times higher than the pre-9/11 rate."[374] Government policies toward terrorism Further information: War on terror, Anti-terrorism legislation, Airport security repercussions due to the September 11 attacks, and Legal issues related to the September 11 attacks See also: Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture Alleged "extraordinary rendition" illegal flights of the CIA, as reported by Polish newspaper Rzeczpospolita[375] As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism.[376] In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.[377] Canada passed the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, their first anti-terrorism law.[378] The United Kingdom passed the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005.[379][380] New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002.[381] In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge; to monitor terror suspects' telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use; and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights. Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.[382] After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about the collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM program (see Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)), Representative Jim Sensenbrenner,(R- Wisconsin) who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the NSA overstepped its bounds.[383][384] Criticism of the war on terror has focused on its morality, efficiency, and cost. According to a 2021 study conducted under the auspices of the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, the several post-9/11 wars participated in by the United States in its War on Terror have caused the displacement, conservatively calculated, of 38 million people in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Somalia, and the Philippines.[385][386][387] The study estimated these wars caused the deaths of 897,000 to 929,000 people and cost $8 trillion.[387] The U.S. Constitution and U.S. law prohibits the use of torture, yet such human rights violations occurred during the War on Terror under the euphemism Enhanced interrogation.[388][389] In 2005, The Washington Post and Human Rights Watch (HRW) published revelations concerning CIA flights and "black sites", covert prisons operated by the CIA.[390][391] The term "torture by proxy" is used by some critics to describe situations in which the CIA and other U.S. agencies have transferred suspected terrorists to countries known to employ torture.[392][393] Investigations FBI Further information: Hijackers in the September 11 attacks Immediately after the attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM, the largest criminal inquiry in United States history. At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads.[394] The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.[395] Mohamed Atta head shot, expressionless, full face Mohamed Atta, an Egyptian national, was the ringleader of the attacks. The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston. Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments, and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language [sic] papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.[396] Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.[397][398] Abu Jandal, who served as bin Laden's chief bodyguard for years, confirmed the identity of seven hijackers as al-Qaeda members during interrogations with the FBI on September 17. He had been jailed in a Yemeni prison since 2000.[399][400] On September 27, 2001, photos of all 19 hijackers were released, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.[401] Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two were from the United Arab Emirates, one was from Egypt, and one was from Lebanon.[402] By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.[403] Two of the hijackers were known to have traveled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000[404] and hijacker Mohammed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan.[405] He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg.[406] One of the members of the Hamburg cell in Germany was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheik Mohammed who was identified as a member of al-Qaeda.[407] Authorities in the United States and United Kingdom also obtained electronic intercepts, including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers, which indicated that Mohammed Atef, a bin Laden deputy, was a key figure in the planning of the 9/11 attacks. Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan. In those conversations, the two referred to "an incident that would take place in America on, or around, September 11" and they discussed potential repercussions. In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan, bin Laden discussed the "scale and effects of a forthcoming operation." These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, or other specifics.[408] Origins of the 19 hijackers Nationality Number Saudi Arabia 15 United Arab Emirates 2 Egypt 1 Lebanon 1 In their annual violent crime index for the year of 2001, the FBI recorded the deaths from the attacks as murder, in separate tables so as not to mix them with other reported crime for that year.[409] In a disclaimer, the FBI stated that "the number of deaths is so great that combining it with the traditional crime statistics will have an outlier effect that falsely skews all types of measurements in the program's analyses."[410] New York City also did not include the deaths in their annual crime statistics for 2001.[411] CIA Further information: September 11 intelligence before the attacks In 2004, John L. Helgerson, the Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), conducted an internal review of the agency's pre-9/11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism.[412] According to Philip Giraldi in The American Conservative, Helgerson criticized their failure to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI.[413][better source needed] In May 2007, senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public. One of the backers, Senator Ron Wyden said, "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11."[414] The report was released in 2009 by President Barack Obama.[412] Congressional inquiry Main article: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 In February 2002, the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community.[415] Their 832-page report released in December 2002[416] detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots.[417] The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non-classified sources.[418] Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.[417] In December 2002, the inquiry's chair Bob Graham (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States."[419] September 11 victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.[417] September 11 victim families,[420] members of Congress[421] and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents.[422][423] In June 2016, CIA chief John Brennan said that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.[424] In September 2016, the Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.[425][426][427] 9/11 Commission Main articles: 9/11 Commission and 9/11 Commission Report See also: Criticism of the 9/11 Commission The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission), chaired by Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton, was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.[428] On July 22, 2004, the commission issued the 9/11 Commission Report. The report detailed the events of 9/11, found the attacks were carried out by members of al-Qaeda, and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks. Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former senators, representatives, and governors, the commissioners explained, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management."[429] The commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.[430] National Institute of Standards and Technology Main article: NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation See also: 7 World Trade Center § 9/11 and collapse The exterior support columns from the lower level of the South Tower remained standing after the building collapsed. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC. The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place, and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction.[431] The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008.[432] NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that had this not occurred, the towers likely would have remained standing.[433] A 2007 study of the north tower's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that since the plane's impact had stripped off much of the structure's thermal insulation, the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact.[434][435] The director of the original investigation stated that "the towers really did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn't bring the buildings down; it was the fire which followed. It was proven that you could take out two-thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand."[436] The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward. With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. Additionally, the report found the towers' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones.[437] NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently "caused a critical support column to fail, initiating a fire-induced progressive collapse that brought the building down".[432] Alleged Saudi government role Main article: Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks See also: Saudi Arabia–United States relations, Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism, and The 28 pages In July 2016, the Obama administration released a document compiled by U.S. investigators Dana Lesemann and Michael Jacobson, known as "File 17",[438] which contains a list naming three dozen people, including the suspected Saudi intelligence officers attached to Saudi Arabia's embassy in Washington, D.C.,[439] which connects Saudi Arabia to the hijackers.[440][441] In September 2016, Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act.[442][443] The practical effect of the legislation was to allow the continuation of a longstanding civil lawsuit brought by families of victims of the September 11 attacks against Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.[444] In March 2018, a U.S. judge formally allowed a suit to move forward against the government of Saudi Arabia brought by 9/11 survivors and victims' families.[442] In 2022, the families of some 9/11 victims obtained two videos and a notepad seized from Saudi national Omar al-Bayoumi by the British courts. The first video showed him hosting a party in San Diego for Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, the first two hijackers to arrive in the U.S. The other video showed al-Bayoumi greeting the cleric Anwar al-Awlaki, who was blamed for radicalizing Americans and later killed in a CIA drone strike. The notepad depicted a hand-drawn airplane and some mathematical equations that, according to a pilot's court statement, might have been used to calculate the rate of descent to get to a target. According to a 2017 FBI memo, from the late 1990s up until the 9/11 attack, al-Bayoumi was a paid cooptee of the Saudi General Intelligence Presidency. As of April 2022 he is believed to be living in Saudi Arabia, which has denied any involvement in 9/11.[445] Rebuilding Main articles: Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and Construction of One World Trade Center Further information: World Trade Center (2001–present) and World Trade Center site Search and rescue teams inspect the wreckage at Ground Zero on September 13. Rebuilt One World Trade Center nearing completion in July 2013 by architect David Childs On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."[446] Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.[447] The damaged section of The Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.[448] The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006, when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.[449] The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting 1 WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541 m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.[450] One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.[16][451] On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers were to be built one block east of where the original towers stood.[452] 4 WTC, meanwhile, opened in November 2013, making it the second tower on the site to open behind 7 World Trade Center, as well as the first building on the Port Authority property.[453] 3 WTC opened on June 11, 2018, becoming the fourth skyscraper at the site to be completed.[454] On the 16th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, a writer for Curbed New York said that although "there is a World Trade Center again", it was not finished, as 2 and 5 WTC did not have definite completion dates, among other things.[455] Christopher O. Ward, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Executive Director from 2008 to 2011, is a survivor of the attacks and is credited with getting the construction of the 9/11 site back on track.[456] Memorials Main article: Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks The Tribute in Light in 2020 – the two columns of light represent the Twin Towers. In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other."[457] One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light, an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.[458] In New York City, the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.[459] The winning design, Reflecting Absence, was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.[460] The memorial was completed on September 11, 2011;[461] a museum also opened on site on May 21, 2014.[462] The Sphere by the German sculptor Fritz Koenig is the world's largest bronze sculpture of modern times, and stood between the Twin Towers on the Austin J. Tobin Plaza of the World Trade Center in New York City from 1971 until the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The sculpture, weighing more than 20 tons, was the only remaining work of art to be recovered largely intact from the ruins of the collapsed Twin Towers after the attacks. Since then, the work of art, known in the U.S. as The Sphere, has been transformed into an important symbolic monument of 9/11 commemoration. After being dismantled and stored near a hangar at John F. Kennedy International Airport, the sculpture was the subject of the 2001 documentary The Sphere by filmmaker Percy Adlon. On August 16, 2017, the work was reinstated, installed at the Liberty Park close to the new World Trade Center aerial and the 9/11 Memorial.[463] In Arlington County, the Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.[464][465] It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.[466] When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.[467] In Shanksville, a concrete-and-glass visitor center was opened on September 10, 2015,[468] situated on a hill overlooking the crash site and the white marble Wall of Names.[469] An observation platform at the visitor center and the white marble wall are both aligned beneath the path of Flight 93.[469][470] A temporary memorial is located 500 yards (457 m) from the crash site.[471] New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.[472] It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.[473] Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families and by many other organizations and private figures.[474] On every anniversary in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,[475] and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the First Lady. See also 9/11 truth movement 9/11 conspiracy theories Delta 1989 & Korean 085, two other flights that were falsely suspected of being hijacked as part of the September 11 attacks Air France Flight 8969 Bojinka plot Federal Express Flight 705 Khobar Towers bombing List of attacks on U.S. territory List of aviation incidents involving terrorism List of deadliest terrorist attacks in the United States List of Islamist terrorist attacks List of major terrorist incidents List of terrorist incidents in New York City List of terrorist incidents in 2001 Outline of the September 11 attacks Timeline of al-Qaeda attacks Timeline of the September 11 attacks USS Cole bombing 1993 World Trade Center bombing 1998 United States embassy bombing 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot 2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot 2009 Bronx terrorism plot 2010 transatlantic aircraft bomb plot References Notes  The hijackers began their first attack at around 8:14 a.m., when a group of five took control of American Airlines Flight 11, stabbing several people before forcing their way into the cockpit.  The fourth and final hijacked plane of the attacks was crashed in a Pennsylvania field at 10:03 a.m., which concluded the attacks, as all of the attackers were now dead and all of the hijacked planes were destroyed. However, the attackers' damage continued as the North Tower kept burning for an additional 25 minutes, until it ultimately collapsed by 10:28 a.m.  Sources vary regarding the number of injuries―some say 6,000[1] while others go as high as 25,000.[2]  The expression 9/11 is typically pronounced "nine eleven" in English, even in places that use the opposite numerical dating convention; the slash is not pronounced.  The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission report says 9:03:11,[4][5] NIST reports 9:02:59,[6] some other sources report 9:03:02.[7]  While NIST and the 9/11 Commission give differing accounts of the exact second of the North Tower's collapse, with NIST placing it at 10:28:22[8]: 229  and the commission at 10:28:25,[9]: 329  it is generally accepted that Flight 11 struck the tower at 8:46:40 a.m.,[10] so the time the tower began to collapse was just shy of 102 minutes either way.  NIST and the 9/11 Commission both state that the collapse began at 9:58:59 a.m., which is rounded to 9:59[147]: 84 [148]: 322  for simplicity. If the commission's claim that the South Tower was struck at 9:03:11 is to be believed, then the collapse began 55 minutes and 48 seconds after the crash, not 56 minutes.  The exact time of the North Tower's collapse initiation is disputed, with NIST dubbing the moment it began to collapse as being 10:28:22 a.m.[149] and the 9/11 Commission recording the time as 10:28:25.[150]: 329  Citations  "A Day of Remembrance". U.S. Embassy in Georgia. September 11, 2022. Retrieved October 27, 2022.  Stempel, Jonathan (July 29, 2019). "Accused 9/11 mastermind open to role in victims' lawsuit if not executed". Reuters. Retrieved October 27, 2022.  "Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Retrieved September 1, 2011. Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States.  Final Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (PDF) (Report). National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. July 22, 2004. pp. 7–8. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 16, 2021. Retrieved August 15, 2021.  Staff Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (PDF) (Report). National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. September 2005 [August 26, 2004]. p. 24. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 12, 2014. Retrieved August 15, 2021.  Building and Fire Research Laboratory (September 2005). Visual Evidence, Damage Estimates, and Timeline Analysis (PDF) (Report). National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States Department of Commerce. p. 27. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 11, 2021. Retrieved August 24, 2021.  "Timeline for United Airlines Flight 175". NPR. June 17, 2004. Archived from the original on August 24, 2021. Retrieved August 24, 2021.  National Institute of Standards and Technology (2005). Final report on the collapse of the World Trade Center (PDF).  9/11 Final Report of the National Commission (2004). Collapse of WTC1 (PDF).  McAllister, T. P.; Gann, R. G.; Averill, J. D.; Gross, J. L.; Grosshandler, W. L.; Lawson, J. R.; McGrattan, K. B.; Pitts, W. M.; Prasad, K. R.; Sadek, F. H.; Nelson, H. E. (August 2008). "Structural Fire Response and Probable Collapse Sequence of World Trade Center Building 7 (Volume 1). Federal Building and Fire Safety Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster (NIST NCSTAR 1–9)". Nist. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): 1–8. Archived from the original on November 2, 2013. Retrieved March 17, 2023.  Corera, Gordon (July 21, 2011). "Bin Laden's Tora Bora escape, just months after 9/11". BBC News.  "How much did the September 11 terrorist attack cost America?". Institute for the Analysis of Global Security. Retrieved April 30, 2014.  Morgan, Matthew J. (August 4, 2009). The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed Everything?. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-230-60763-7.  "Deadliest incidents resulting in the deaths of 8 or more firefighters". National Fire Protection Association.  "Congressional Record, Vol. 148, No. 76" (PDF). Government Printing Office. June 11, 2002. p. H3312. Mr. Hefley: That fateful Tuesday we lost 72 police officers, the largest single loss of law enforcement personnel in a single day in the history of our country.  Moore, Jack (November 3, 2014). "World Trade Center Re-opens as Tallest Building in America". One World Trade Center. Archived from the original on September 4, 2015. Retrieved September 11, 2015.  Smith, Aaron (November 3, 2014). "One World Trade Center opens today". CNN. Retrieved November 4, 2014.  Formichi, Chiara (2020). Islam as Resistance. Cambridge University Press. p. 206.  Hafez, Mohammed M. (March 2008). "Jihad After Iraq: Lessons from the Arab Afghans Phenomenon". CTC Sentinel. Vol. 1, no. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 8, 2011.  "Al-Qaeda's origins and links". BBC News. July 20, 2004. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin Group. pp. 144–145, 238. ISBN 9781594200076.  Bergen (2006), pp. 60–61.  "Bin Laden's fatwā (1996)". PBS. Archived from the original on October 31, 2001. Retrieved May 29, 2014.  "Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". PBS NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014.  Logevall, Fredrik (2002). Terrorism and 9/11: A Reader. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-25535-4.  "Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain". BBC News. July 6, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Full transcript of bin Laden's speech". Al Jazeera. November 2, 2004. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border". Fox News. September 16, 2001. Archived from the original on May 23, 2010. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly'". CNN. December 14, 2001. Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved November 24, 2013. Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and says the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly".  "Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts". BBC News. December 27, 2001. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Michael, Maggie (October 29, 2004). "Bin Laden, in statement to U.S. people, says he ordered Sept. 11 attacks". SignOnSanDiego.com. Associated Press. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Bin Laden Dead – Where Are Other 9/11 Planners?". ABC News. May 2, 2011. Retrieved February 2, 2019. While initially denying responsibility for the 9/11 attacks, Bin Laden took responsibility for them in a 2004 taped statement, saying that he had personally directed the hijackers.  "Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Retrieved February 2, 2019.  "Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired". CBC News. September 7, 2006. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Clewley, Robin (September 27, 2001). "How Osama Cracked FBI's Top 10". Wired. Archived from the original on May 26, 2008. Retrieved May 29, 2014.  "Usama Bin Laden". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Archived from the original on October 11, 2010. Retrieved September 10, 2011.  Baker, Peter; Cooper, Helene (May 1, 2011). "Bin Laden Is Dead, President Obama Says". The New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "We left out nuclear targets, for now". The Guardian. London. March 4, 2003. Archived from the original on January 23, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2011. Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel al-Jazeera is the only journalist to have interviewed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the al-Qaeda military commander arrested at the weekend.  Leonard, Tom; Spillius, Alex (October 10, 2008). "Alleged 9/11 mastermind wants to confess to plot". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "September 11 suspect 'confesses'". Al Jazeera. March 15, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 147.  "White House power grabs". The Washington Times. August 26, 2009. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Van Voris, Bob; Hurtado, Patricia (April 4, 2011). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Terror Indictment Unsealed, Dismissed". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on April 17, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Shannon, Elaine; Weisskopf, Michael (March 24, 2003). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Names Names". Time. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Nichols, Michelle (May 8, 2008). "US judge orders CIA to turn over 'torture' memo-ACLU". Reuters. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Key 9/11 suspect 'admits guilt'". BBC News. March 15, 2007. Retrieved April 10, 2012.  "Accused 9/11 mastermind open to role in victims' lawsuit if not executed". Reuters. July 29, 2019. Retrieved July 29, 2019.  "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" (PDF). United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. 2006. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 26, 2019. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Spain jails 18 al-Qaeda operatives". The Age. Melbourne. September 27, 2005. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Naughton, Philippe (June 1, 2006). "Spanish court quashes 9/11 conviction". The Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Summers and Swan (2011), p. 489n.  Youssef, Maamoun (May 24, 2006). "Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11". The Washington Post. Associated Press.  "9/11: One of the few men convicted, Mounir el-Motassadeq, is free". Quartz. October 16, 2018. Retrieved October 26, 2018.  "The Hamburg connection". BBC News. August 19, 2005.  "Chapter of the 9/11 Commission Report detailing the history of the Hamburg Cell Archived August 16, 2009, at the Wayback Machine". 9/11 Commission.  Gunarathna, pp. 61–62. "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. bin Laden, Osama (November 24, 2002). "Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Observer. London. Retrieved September 3, 2011. Mearsheimer (2007), p. 67. Kushner (2003), p. 389. Murdico (2003), p. 64. Kelley (2006), p. 207. Ibrahim (2007), p. 276. Berner (2007), p. 80 Plotz, David (2001) What Does Osama Bin Laden Want?, Slate Bergen (2001), p. 3 Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on January 19, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "US pulls out of Saudi Arabia". BBC News. April 29, 2003. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "Saga of Dr. Zawahri Sheds Light on the Roots of al Qaeda Terror". The Wall Street Journal. July 2, 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "Tenth Public Hearing, Testimony of Louis Freeh". 9/11 Commission. April 13, 2004. Retrieved September 3, 2011. "Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders: World Islamic Front Statement". Federation of American Scientists. February 23, 1998. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  "Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Guardian. London. November 24, 2002. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010. Retrieved April 26, 2010.  "Osama bin Laden's aide Ayman al-Zawahiri rants on global warming - Mirror.co.uk". Daily Mirror.  Kates, Brian (January 30, 2010). "Al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden blasts U.S. in audiotape spewing hate for... global warming". New York Daily News.  "Full transcript of bin Laden's 'Letter to America'". The Guardian. London. November 24, 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  bin Laden, Osama. "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. So I shall talk to you about the story behind those events and shall tell you truthfully about the moments in which the decision was taken, for you to consider  Bergen, Peter L. (2005). Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-3467-2. Retrieved March 20, 2020.  "1998 Al Qaeda fatwā". Federation of American Scientists (FAS). February 23, 1998. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian. London. Retrieved September 3, 2011.  Pape, Robert A. (2005). Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-7338-9. Retrieved March 20, 2020.  See also the 1998 Al-Qaeda fatwā: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim." Quoted from "Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". PBS NewsHour. PBS. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014.  Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n.  Lawrence (2005), p. 239.  "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. November 4, 2004. Archived from the original on November 14, 2016. Retrieved August 24, 2016.  In his taped broadcast from January 2010, Bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues. ... The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September 11". Quoted from "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel" Archived December 16, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, in Haaretz.com  Bernard Lewis, 2004. In Bernard Lewis's 2004 book The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, he argues that animosity toward the West is best understood with the decline of the once powerful Ottoman empire, compounded by the import of western ideas – Arab socialism, Arab liberalism and Arab secularism  In "The spirit of terrorism", Jean Baudrillard described 9/11 as the first global event that "questions the very process of globalization". Baudrillard. "The spirit of terrorism". Retrieved June 26, 2011.  In an essay entitled "Somebody Else's Civil War", Michael Scott Doran argues the attacks are best understood as part of a religious conflict within the Muslim world and that Bin Laden's followers "consider themselves an island of true believers surrounded by a sea of iniquity". Hoping that U.S. retaliation would unite the faithful against the West, bin Laden sought to spark revolutions in Arab nations and elsewhere. Doran argues the Osama bin Laden videos attempt to provoke a visceral reaction in the Middle East and ensure that Muslim citizens would react as violently as possible to an increase in U.S. involvement in their region. (Doran, Michael Scott. "Somebody Else's Civil War". Foreign Affairs. No. January/February 2002. Retrieved December 5, 2009. Reprinted in Hoge, James F.; Rose, Gideon (2005). Understanding the War on Terror. New York: Norton. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-0-87609-347-4.)  In The Osama bin Laden I Know, Peter Bergen argues the attacks were part of a plan to cause the United States to increase its military and cultural presence in the Middle East, thereby forcing Muslims to confront the idea of a non-Muslim government and to eventually establish conservative Islamic governments in the region.(Bergen (2006), p. 229)  Lahoud, Nelly (2022). The Bin Laden Papers: How the Abbottabad Raid Revealed the Truth about al-Qaeda, Its Leader and His Family. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. pp. 16–19, 307. ISBN 978-0-300-26063-2. "The Birth of the Idea of September 11" (in Arabic). Central Intelligence Agency. September 2002. Retrieved April 15, 2022.  "Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning'". BBC News. September 22, 2003. 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Damico, Amy M; Quay, Sara E. (2010). September 11 in Popular Culture: A Guide. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-35505-9. Hampton, Wilborn (2003). September 11, 2001: attack on New York City. Candlewick Press. ISBN 978-0-7636-1949-7. Langley, Andrew (2006). September 11: Attack on America. Compass Point Books. ISBN 978-0-7565-1620-8. Neria, Yuval; Gross, Raz; Marshall, Randall D.; Susser, Ezra S. (2006). 9/11: mental health in the wake of terrorist attacks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83191-8. Ryan, Allan A. (2015). The 9/11 Terror Cases: Constitutional Challenges in the War against Al Qaeda. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2132-3. Strasser, Steven; Whitney, Craig R; United States. Congress. Senate. Select Committee on Intelligence, National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (2004). The 9/11 investigations: staff reports of the 9/11 Commission: excerpts from the House–Senate joint inquiry report on 9/11: testimony from fourteen key witnesses, including Richard Clarke, George Tenet, and Condoleezza Rice. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-279-4. External links September 11 attacks at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States official commission website List of victims September 11, 2001, Documentary Project from the U.S. Library of Congress, Memory.loc.gov September 11, 2001, Web Archive from the U.S. Library of Congress, Minerva National Security Archive September 11 Digital Archive: Saving the Histories of September 11, 2001, from the Center for History and New Media and the American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning DoD: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024, from Wikisource The 9/11 Legacies Project, Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague 9/11 at 20: A Week of Reflection, Responsible Statecraft, The Quincy Institute Listen to this article (1 hour and 28 minutes) 1:27:43 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 11 September 2019, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Multimedia CNN.com vte September 11 attacks Timeline PlanningSeptember 11, 2001World Trade Center collapseRemainder of SeptemberOctoberPost-October Victims CasualtiesList A–GH–NO–Z Hijacked airliners American Airlines Flight 11United Airlines Flight 175American Airlines Flight 77United Airlines Flight 93Suspected hijackings Korean Air Flight 085Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 Crash sites World Trade Center World Trade Center siteThe PentagonStonycreek / Shanksville, Pennsylvania Aftermath Immediate repercussions artwork destroyedclosings and cancellationsdetentionsCommunicationPost-9/11 economylocal healthairport securityReactions conspiracy theoriesRudy GiulianiUnsuccessful terrorist plots Response U.S. government responseU.S. military response War on TerrorAfghanistanNorth-West PakistanRescue and recovery effort maritime responseFinancial assistanceOperation SUPPORTOperation Yellow RibbonMemorials and services 9/11 Memorial and MuseumFlight 93 National MemorialPentagon MemorialVictims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon MemorialWorld Trade Center Health ProgramKilling of Osama bin LadenKilling of Ayman al-Zawahiri Perpetrators ResponsibilityAl-QaedaOsama bin LadenAlleged Saudi roleMotivesHijackers 20th hijackerHamburg cellTrials Inquiries U.S. Congressional Inquiry the 28 pagesSeptember 11 intelligence before the attacks August 2001 CIA warningPhoenix Memo9/11 Commission Commission ReportcriticismNIST investigationPENTTBOMThinThread Cultural effects Cultural references songscomicsbooksCartoonists Remember 9/11Entertainment affectedHumorLost artworksClear Channel memorandum Miscellaneous War gamesPatriot DayThe Falling ManImpending DeathDust LadyRaising the Flag at Ground ZeroView from Williamsburg, Brooklyn, on Manhattan, 9/11Tourist Guy hoaxIraq WarTwin Towers IIDisappearance of Sneha Anne PhilipMurder of Balbir Singh SodhiKilling of Henryk SiwiakRudi DekkersAlicia Esteve HeadJersey GirlsMedia documentation  Category WikiProject Links to related articles vte World Trade Center First WTC (1973–2001) ConstructionTowers 1234567Windows on the WorldMallThe BathtubTenants 124567 Art and memorials 1993 World Trade Center Bombing MemorialBent PropellerIdeogramSky Gate, New YorkThe SphereThe World Trade Center TapestryWorld Trade Center Plaza Sculpture Major events February 26, 1993 bombingJanuary 14, 1998 robberySeptember 11, 2001 attacks CollapseTimelineVictimsAftermathRescue and recovery effortNIST report on collapseDeutsche Bank BuildingSt. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church Second WTC (2001–present) Site, towers, and structures One ConstructionTenants23457Perelman Performing Arts CenterVehicular Security CenterLiberty Park St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox ChurchWestfield MallArtwork (ONE: Union of the Senses) Rapid transit PATH stations Transportation HubNew York City Subway stations Chambers Street–WTC/Park Place/Cortlandt Street (2, ​3​, A, ​C, ​E​, ​N, ​R, and ​W trains)WTC Cortlandt (1 train)Fulton Street (2, ​3​, 4, ​5​, A, ​C​, J, and ​Z trains)Fulton Center Corbin BuildingDey Street Passageway 9/11 memorials 9/11 Tribute MuseumNational September 11 Memorial & Museum CompetitionMemory FoundationsTribute in LightAmerica's Response MonumentEmpty SkyTo the Struggle Against World TerrorismPostcards memorialThe Rising memorialRelics from original WTC The SphereCrossSurvivors' Staircase People Minoru YamasakiDavid RockefellerNelson RockefellerEmery Roth & SonsAustin J. TobinChristopher O. WardLarry SilversteinDavid ChildsMichael AradTHINK TeamDaniel LibeskindLeslie E. RobertsonWelles Crowther Other Port Authority of New York and New JerseySilverstein PropertiesProject RebirthTake Back The MemorialWTC in popular culture FilmMusic9/11-related mediaSilver dollar10048 ZIP codeFormer: IFCTwin Towers 2 Brookfield Place 200 Liberty Street225 Liberty Street200 Vesey Street250 Vesey StreetWinter Garden AtriumOne North End Avenue Other nearby structures 90 West Street200 West StreetBarclay–Vesey BuildingPark51West Street pedestrian bridges vte War on terror War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)Iraq War (2003–2011)Symbolism of terrorism Participants Operational ISAFOperation Enduring Freedom participantsAfghanistanNorthern AllianceIraq (Iraqi Armed Forces)NATOPakistanUnited KingdomUnited StatesEuropean UnionPhilippinesEthiopia Targets Individuals Osama bin LadenHamza bin LadenAnwar al-AwlakiSirajuddin HaqqaniJalaluddin HaqqaniAnas HaqqaniKhalil HaqqaniHafiz SaeedMahmoud Mohamed Ahmed BahaziqAbu Bakr al-Baghdadi Factions al-Qaedaal-Qaeda in the Arabian PeninsulaAbu SayyafAl-ShabaabBoko HaramHarkat-ul-Jihad al-IslamiHizbul MujahideenIslamic Courts UnionJaish-e-MohammedJemaah IslamiyahLashkar-e-TaibaTalibanIslamic Movement of UzbekistanIslamic State Conflicts Operation Enduring Freedom War in AfghanistanOEF – PhilippinesGeorgia Train and Equip ProgramGeorgia Sustainment and StabilityOEF – Horn of AfricaOEF – Trans SaharaDrone strikes in Pakistan Other Operation Active EndeavourInsurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)Insurgency in the North CaucasusMoro conflict in the PhilippinesIraq WarIraqi insurgencyOperation Linda NchiTerrorism in Saudi ArabiaInsurgency in Khyber PakhtunkhwaWar in Somalia (2006–2009)2007 Lebanon conflictal-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen See also Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuseAxis of evilBush DoctrineClash of CivilizationsCold WarCombatant Status Review TribunalCriticism of the war on terrorCIA black sitesKilling of Ayman al-ZawahiriKilling of Osama bin LadenEnhanced interrogation techniquesTorture MemosExtrajudicial prisonersExtraordinary renditionGuantanamo Bay detention campIranian RevolutionIslamic terrorismIslamismMilitary Commissions Act of 2006Military Commissions Act of 2009North Korea and weapons of mass destructionTerrorist Surveillance ProgramOperation Noble EagleOperation Eagle AssistPakistan's rolePatriot ActPresident's Surveillance ProgramProtect America Act of 2007September 11 attacksState Sponsors of TerrorismTargeted killingTargeted Killing in International LawTargeted Killings: Law and Morality in an Asymmetrical WorldUnitary executive theoryUnlawful combatantWithdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2011–2016)Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)CAGE  Category Commons vte Al-Qaeda Leadership Saif al-AdelAbd al-Rahman al-MaghribiKhalid BatarfiAhmad UmarIyad Ag GhalyEzedin Abdel Aziz KhalilAbu Ubaidah Youssef al-AnnabiAli Sayyid Muhamed Mustafa al-BakriIbrahim al-BannaIbrahim al QosiMokhtar BelmokhtarAbu Walid al-MasriAmin al-HaqMohammed Showqi Al-IslambouliAbdukadir Mohamed AbdukadirFuad QalafJehad Mostafa Former leadership Killed Osama bin Laden (killing)Ayman al-Zawahiri (killing)Mohammed AtefAbu Musab al-ZarqawiHaitham al-BadriAbu Yaqub al-MasriAbu Talha al-SudaniAbu Sulayman Al-JazairiMidhat MursiMohamed MoumouKhalid HabibAbu GhadiyaAbu Zubair al-MasriRashid RaufMohammad Hasan Khalil al-HakimFahid Mohammed Ally MsalamSheikh Ahmed Salim SwedanSaad bin LadenSaleh Ali Saleh NabhanAbdullah Said al LibiSaleh al-SomaliAbu Ayyub al-MasriAbu Omar al-BaghdadiSaeed al-MasriHamza al-JawfiAhmed Mohammed Hamed AliMohamed Abul-KhairAbu Suleiman al-NaserHuthaifa al-BatawiIlyas KashmiriFazul Abdullah MohammedAtiyah Abd al-RahmanAnwar al-AwlakiSamir KhanTariq al-DahabMuhammad Sa'id Ali HasanFahd al-QusoSaid Ali al-ShihriFarman Ali ShinwariQaed Salim Sinan al-HarethiMustafa Mohamed FadhilHaitham al-YemeniAbu Hamza RabiaMuhsin Musa Matwalli AtwahHassan GhulAbu-Zaid al KuwaitiSaid BahajiOmar al-FaruqAbu Laith al-LibiAbu Yahya al-LibiAbdelhamid Abou ZeidIbrahim Haji Jama Mee'aadAbu Mansoor Al-AmrikiAbu Khalid al-SuriOmar Ould HamahaAhmed Abdi GodaneAbu Yusuf Al-TurkiAdnan Gulshair el ShukrijumahAdam Yahiye GadahnHarith bin Ghazi al-NadhariIbrahim Sulayman Muhammad al-RubayshNasser bin Ali al-AnsiNasir al-WuhayshiOthman Ahmad Othman al-GhamdiMuhsin al-FadhliAbu Firas al-SuriAhmed Refai TahaAbu Khayr al-MasriIbrahim al-AsiriAbu Khalil al-MadaniHamza bin LadenSari ShihabAsim UmarQasim al-RaymiAbdelmalek DroukdelKhalid al-AruriAbdullah Ahmed AbdullahAbu Muhsin al-Masri Captured Mamdouh Mahmud SalimWadih el-HageKhalid al-FawwazAbd al-Rahim al-NashiriKhalid Sheikh MohammedWalid bin AttashRiduan IsamuddinAli al-BahlulAhmed GhailaniAbu Faraj al-LibbiMustafa Setmariam NasarAbdul Hadi al IraqiMuhammad Jafar Jamal al-KahtaniMohamed Atiq Awayd Al HarbiYounis al-MauritaniSulaiman Abu GhaithAbu Anas al-LibiMuhanad Mahmoud Al FarekhMukhtar Robow Other Abu Ubaidah al-Banshiri (died)Abu Ubaidah al-Masri (died)Mahfouz Ould al-Walid (left)Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi (expelled)Abu Mohammad al-Julani (left)Abu Maria al-Qahtani (left)Ahmad Salama Mabruk (left)Abu Omar al-Turkistani (died)Abu Humam al-Shami (left)Sami al-Oraydi (left) Timeline of attacks 1998 United States embassy bombings2000 USS Cole bombing2001 September 11 attacks2002 Bali bombings2004 Madrid train bombings2005 London bombings2007 Algiers bombings2008 Islamabad Danish embassy bombing2008 Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing2013 In Amenas hostage crisis2013 Westgate shopping mall attack2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting2015 Garissa University College attack2015 Bamako hotel attack2016 Ouagadougou attacks2016 Grand-Bassam shootings2016 Bamako attack2019 Naval Air Station Pensacola shooting Wars Soviet–Afghan WarAfghan Civil War (1989–1992)Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)First Chechen WarAfghan Civil War (1996–2001)Second Chechen WarWar in Afghanistan (2001–2021)Iraq WarSomali Civil WarWar in North-West Pakistan (drone strikes)Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)Syrian civil warYemeni Civil War (2015–present) al-Qaeda insurgency in YemenHouthi insurgency in Yemen Affiliates al-Shabaab (Somalia)al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen)al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (North Africa)Egyptian Islamic Jihad (Egypt)al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (Indian Subcontinent)Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (Mali) Charity organizations Benevolence International Foundational-Haramain Foundation Media Al Qaeda HandbookAl NedaAs-SahabFatawā of Osama bin LadenInspireAl-KhansaaKuala Lumpur al-Qaeda SummitManagement of SavageryVoice of JihadQaedat al-JihadGlobal Islamic Media Front Video and audio Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin LadenVideos and audio recordings of Ayman al-ZawahiriUSS Cole bombing Related Safe housesAl-Qaeda and Saddam Hussein Timeline  Category:Al-Qaeda vte Osama bin Laden Background Childhood, education, and personal lifeMilitant activityBeliefs and ideologySearchKhartoum compoundAbbottabad compoundDeath reactionscode name controversyconspiracy theories Family Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden (father)Hamida al-Attas (mother)Najwa Ghanhem (first wife)Abdallah bin Laden (son)Hamza bin Laden (son)Saad bin Laden (son)Omar bin Laden (son) Work al-QaedaWadi al AqiqMessages to the WorldFatawā2004 video19 January 2006 tape7 September 2007 video11 September 2007 video20 September 2007 tape (more) In media In popular cultureGrowing Up bin LadenHoly War, Inc.The Looming TowerNo Easy DayWhere in the World Is Osama bin Laden?Zero Dark ThirtyInterviews Related Soviet–Afghan WarAllegations of support system in Pakistan for Osama bin LadenBodyguardIssue StationRelationship with Saddam Hussein TimelineSeptember 11 attacksAllegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin LadenFalse sightingsGary Brooks Faulkner vte Aviation accidents and incidents in 2001 Jan 23 Yemenia Flight 448 Jan 25 RUTACA Airlines Flight 225 Jan 27 Omsk An-70 crash Jan 27 Oklahoma State basketball team crash Jan 31 Japan Airlines mid-air incident Feb 7 Iberia Flight 1456 Feb 27 Loganair Flight 670A Mar 3 Thai Airways International Flight 114 Mar 24 Air Caraïbes Flight 1501 Mar 29 Avjet Gulfstream III crash Apr 1 Hainan Island incident Apr 20 Peru shootdown May 17 Faraz Qeshm Airlines Yak-40 crash Jul 4 Vladivostok Air Flight 352 Aug 24 Air Transat Flight 236 Aug 25 Marsh Harbour Cessna 402 crash Aug 29 Binter Mediterráneo Flight 8261 Sep 11 American Airlines Flight 11 Sep 11 United Airlines Flight 175 Sep 11 American Airlines Flight 77 Sep 11 United Airlines Flight 93 Sep 11 Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 Sep 11 Korean Air Flight 085 Sep 15 TAM Flight 9755 Sep 17 Grozny Mi-8 crash Oct 4 Siberia Airlines Flight 1812 Oct 8 Linate Airport disaster Oct 10 Flightline Flight 101 Nov 12 American Airlines Flight 587 Nov 12 Fishtail Air Eurocopter AS350 crash Nov 24 Crossair Flight 3597 Dec 2 AFRF Flight 9064 Dec 22 American Airlines Flight 63 2000   ◄    ►   2002 vte United States articles History By period 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Geological historyPre-ColumbianColonial1776–17891789–18491849–18651865–19181918–19451945–19641964–19801980–1991 Reagan Era1991–20082008–present Topics AbortionAgricultureAmerican CenturyAfrican AmericansCapital punishmentCitiesCorruptionThe ConstitutionDemographyEconomy BankingEducation Higher educationFlagForeign policy DiplomacyImmigrationLaborLaw enforcementLGBTLumberMedicineMerchant MarineMilitary ArmyMarine CorpsNavyAir ForceSpace ForceCoast GuardMusicNative AmericansPostal serviceRailwayReligionSlavery Sexual slaverySportsTaxationTechnology and industryTerritorial evolution Historic regionsAmerican frontierManifest destinyIndian removalVoting rightsWomen By region New EnglandThe SouthThe West The West Coast  Category Portal vte Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia–United States relations United States Diplomatic posts Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington, D.C.Ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to the United StatesAmbassadors of the United States to Saudi ArabiaQuincy HouseBureau of Near Eastern Affairs Diplomacy Operation Hajji BabaUnited States Military Training MissionSaudi Arabian National Guard Modernization ProgramWithdrawal of United States troops from Saudi ArabiaIran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict Arab–Israeli allianceU.S. support for Saudi-led operations in Yemen2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal2017 Riyadh summitInternational Maritime Security Construct Incidents 1973 attack on the Saudi Embassy in KhartoumUS–Saudi Arabia AWACS SaleSaudi Arabia v. NelsonKhobar Towers bombingSeptember 11 attacks Alleged Saudi roleIn re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism ActSaudi Guantanamo Bay detaineesHomaidan Al-TurkiUnited States diplomatic cables leak2011 alleged Iran assassination plotAssassination of Jamal KhashoggiNaval Air Station Pensacola shooting Related Golden gimmickPatricia RoushSaudi AramcoSaudi Arabia lobby in the United States Saudi American Public Relation Affairs CommitteeWWE in Saudi ArabiaPrince Sultan Air BaseKing Abdulaziz Air BaseKing Khalid Military CityKing Khalid Military CollegeAmerican International School of JeddahAmerican International School – RiyadhDhahran SchoolISG DammamIslamic Saudi AcademyKing Abdullah AcademyHouse of Bush, House of Saud  Category:Saudi Arabia–United States relations vte Deadliest terrorist attacks in the United States September 11 attacks (2001) (2,977 deaths) Oklahoma City bombing (1995) (168 deaths) Tulsa race massacre (1921) (75–300 deaths) Mountain Meadows Massacre (1857) (120 deaths) Colfax massacre (1873) (62–153 deaths) Orlando nightclub shooting (2016) (49 deaths) Bath School disaster (1927) (44 deaths) Wall Street bombing (1920) (38 deaths) El Paso Walmart shooting (2019) (23 deaths) Wilmington insurrection (1898) (22 deaths) Los Angeles Times bombing (1910) (21 deaths) Fort Hood shooting (2009) (14 deaths) San Bernardino attack (2015) (14 deaths) Columbine High School massacre (1999) (13 deaths) Haymarket affair (1886) (12 deaths) LaGuardia Airport bombing (1975) (11 deaths) Pittsburgh synagogue shooting (2018) (11 deaths) Preparedness Day Bombing (1916) (10 deaths) Buffalo supermarket shooting (2022) (10 deaths) Milwaukee Police Department bombing (1917) (10 deaths) This navbox reflects information from this list. Portals: icon Modern history flag New York City icon Politics flag United States flag Virginia Authority control Edit this at Wikidata International FASTVIAFWorldCat National SpainFranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech Republic Other NARA Categories: September 11 attacks2000s crimes in New York City2000s crimes in Pennsylvania2000s crimes in Virginia2000s in Manhattan2001 in international relations2001 in New York City2001 in Pennsylvania2001 in Virginia2001 murders in the United States2001 suicides21st-century mass murder in the United StatesAl-Qaeda attacksAnti-AmericanismAnti-Western sentimentAttacks on buildings and structures in 2001Attacks on buildings and structures in the United StatesAttacks on government buildings and structuresAttacks on military installations in the 2000sAttacks on office buildingsAviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 2001Crimes in ManhattanDisasters in New York CityDisasters in PennsylvaniaDisasters in VirginiaFilmed deaths in the United StatesFilmed murder–suicidesGeorge W. 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BushSaudi Arabia–United States relationsSeptember 2001 crimesSeptember 2001 events in the United StatesSuicides in New York CityTerrorist incidents in New York CityTerrorist incidents in PennsylvaniaTerrorist incidents in the United States in 2001Terrorist incidents in VirginiaThe PentagonWorld Trade Center The 100 Most Important Events in Human History For those who don’t have time to wade through the entire Timeline of Human History, I have created a list of the 100 most important events in human history by collecting and combining several lists of 10, 25, 50 or 100 “most important events” or “events that changed the world” from the Internet and combining them into one meta-list, which is presented below in chronological order.  As with many such lists, the results are unlikely to win universal approval. For example, I find the list biased toward Western (in particular American) civilization and overly focused on war, religion and dead white men.  There is also a bit of “comparing apples to oranges” because some of the important events happened in an instant and others occurred over many years or decades.  Despite these caveats, I think it is safe to say that all the events listed here are important to understanding human history.   1.  The Agricultural Revolution: Humans Domesticate Plants and Animals: c. 11,000-4,000 BCE — c. 20,000 BCE: Earliest evidence of humans exerting some control over wild grain (Israel) — c. 11,000 BCE: Planned cultivation and trait selection of rye (Syria); evidence of domestication of lentils, vetch, pistachios and almonds (Greece) — c. 9,500 BCE: By  this time, eight key crops (emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas and flax) have been domesticated in the Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Cyprus, Turkey) — c. 9,100 BCE: Oldest known agricultural settlement, at Klimonas (Cyprus) — c. 9,000 BCE: Domestication of sheep in several locations in central and southwest Asia — c. 8,000 BCE: Farming is fully established along the Nile River by this time (Egypt); rice and millet are domesticated in China; domestication of goats (Iran); domestication of pigs (Near East; China; Germany); domestication of maize and squash (Mexico) — c. 7,000 BCE: Agriculture is well-established in Mesopotamia (Iraq); first evidence of agriculture in the Indus Valley (Pakistan, India); domestication of cattle in North Africa, India and Mesopotamia — c. 6,000 BCE: First evidence of agriculture on the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal); domestication of chickens (India; Southeast Asia); domestication of llamas (Peru) — c. 5,500 BCE: Farmers in Sumeria have developed large-scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation and a specialized agricultural labor force (Iraq) — c. 5,000 BCE: Domestication of rice and sorghum in Africa’s Sahel region (Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Algeria, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ethiopia) — c. 4,000 BCE: Domestication of the horse (Ukraine; Kazakhstan) — c. 3,700 BCE: Oldest known field systems, including stone walls (Ireland) — c. 3,000 BCE: Earliest known use of the ox-drawn ard plow (Egypt) 2.  The First Cities Emerge in Mesopotamia: c. 4000-3000 BCE (Iraq) — c. 5400 BCE: According to legend, the Sumerians create their first settlement in Mesopotamia at Eridu — c. 4500 BCE: The Sumerian settlement of Uruk becomes the first city in Mesopotamia — c. 2900 BCE: Uruk is the largest city in the world — c. 2075 BCE: The Sumerian city of Lagash is the largest city in the world — c. 2030 BCE: The Sumerian city of Ur is the largest city in the world 3. The First Wheeled Vehicles Appear in Mesopotamia, Eastern Europe and the Caucasus: c. 3500 BCE (Iraq, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania) lubjlana marshes wheel and axle The remains of the oldest existing wheel and axle, dating to 3000 BCE, were found in the Lubjlana marshes in Slovenia. 4.  The First Writing Systems Appear in Mesopotamia (Cuneiform), Egypt (Hieroglyphics) and the Indus Valley (Indus Script): c. 3200 BCE 5. The Ancient Egyptians Build the Great Pyramid of Giza for Pharaoh Khufu: c. 2560 BCE (Egypt) great-pyramid The Great Pyramid at Giza, Egypt was built as the tomb of Fourth Dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu. 6. The Origin and Development of Modern Alphabets: c. 1850-800 BCE (Egypt, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Greece) — c. 1850 BCE (or 1550 BCE): First evidence of the Proto-Sinaitic/Proto-Canaanite script, which gives rise to the Phoenician alphabet — c. 1050 BCE: Development of the all-consonant Phoenician alphabet, which gives rise to the Semitic, Hebraic and Arabic scripts — c. 800 BCE: The Greeks adapt the Phoenician alphabet by converting some of the letters to vowels; the Greek alphabet gives rise to the Roman and Cryllic alphabets alphabets The Phoenician alphabet and the alphabets derived from it. 7. Babylonian King Hammurabi Issues the Code of Hammurabi, One of the Earliest Legal Codes: c. 1754 BCE (Iraq) stele of hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi is engraved on an eight-foot tall diorite stele, with a portrait of the king receiving the laws from Shamash, the sun god. It is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. 8. As Knowledge of Iron Metallurgy Spreads, the Bronze Age Ends and the Iron Age Begins: c. 1200-500 BCE — c. 3000-2700 BCE: First evidence of smelting iron ore to make wrought iron (Iraq, Syria) — c. 1800-1200 BCE: Evidence of smelting iron ore to make wrought iron in India — c. 1500-1200 BCE: The Hittites are working iron in bellows-aided furnaces (“bloomeries”) (Turkey) — c. 1200 BCE: The Iron Age begins in the Ancient Near East (Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine) and India — c. 800 BCE: The Iron Age begins in Central and Western Europe — c. 500 BCE: The Iron Age begins in Northern Europe and China 9.  The Rise of Ancient Greek Civilization: c. 800-336 BCE  (Greece) — c. 800 BCE: The Greek Dark Ages end and the Archaic Period begins; the first Greek city-states emerge  — 776 BCE: Traditional date of first Olympic Games athletic competitions — c. 595-575 BCE: Solon institutes wide-ranging constitutional reforms in Athens — 490 BCE: The Greeks stop the first Persian invasion at the Battle of Marathon — 480-479 BCE: Greek city-states (led by Athens and Sparta) repel the second Persian invasion at Salamis and Plataea; Classical Period begins  — 461-429 BCE: Pericles leads Athens during a golden age of arts and culture –—– 458 BCE: The Oresteia, a trilogy of tragic plays by Aeschylus, is performed in Athens —— 440 BCE: Herodotus writes The Histories, an account of the Greco-Persian wars —— 432 BCE: Completion of the Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens —— 429 BCE: Oedipus Rex, a tragic play by Sophocles, is performed in Athens — 404 BCE: Sparta defeats Athens, ending the Peloponnesian War — 400 BCE: First articulation of the Hippocratic Oath for physicians — 386 BCE: Plato opens the Academy in Athens — 336 BCE: Aristotle opens the Lyceum in Athens 10.  The Rise and Fall of Ancient Roman Civilization: c. 753 BCE – 476 CE (Italy) — 753 BCE: Legendary date of founding of Rome — 509 BCE: Legendary date of founding of the Roman Republic — 202 BCE: Rome under Scipio Africanus defeats Carthage under Hannibal at the Battle of Zama to end the Second Punic War (Tunisia) — 146 BCE: Roman armies destroy the city of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War (Tunisia) — 49 BCE: Julius Caesar and his army cross the Rubicon, starting Roman Civil War — 44 BCE: Julius Caesar is assassinated in the Senate by Brutus, Cassius and others — 31 BCE: Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, ending the Roman civil wars (Greece) — 27 BCE: The Senate makes Octavian (later called Augustus) Imperator, effectively ceding power to him and marking the beginning of the Roman Empire — 27 BCE-180 CE: Pax Romana, a period of relative peace in the Roman Empire — 9 CE: In the Battle of Teutoberg Forest, Germanic forces led by Arminius ambush and destroy three Roman legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus (Germany) — 312 CE: Constantine defeats rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge to become co-emperor — 313 CE: Co-emperors Constantine and Licinius issue the Edict of Milan, which makes Christianity legal in the Roman Empire — 390 CE: Theodosius the Great issues the Edict of Thessalonica, which makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire — 395 CE: Death of Theodosius; from this point, the Roman Empire is permanently divided between Eastern and Western portions — 410 CE: Sack of Rome by the Visigoths under Alaric — 476 CE: Flavius Odoacer leads a revolt that deposes Emperor Romulus Augustulus, marking the end of the Western Roman Empire A map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under Emperor Trajan. A map of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent, under Emperor Trajan. 11.  The Life of the Buddha and Birth of Buddhism: c. 563-400 BCE (India) 12.  The Life of Confucius and Birth of Confucianism: 551-479 BCE (China) 13.  Alexander the Great Creates an Immense Empire: 336-323 BCE (Greece) — 338 BCE: The Macedonians, led by King Philip II and his son Alexander, take Athens in the Battle of Chaeronea, giving Macedon power over all the Greek city-states — 336 BCE: Upon the death of Philip II, Alexander becomes king of Macedon (Greece) — 333 BCE: Alexander wins the Battle of Issus over Darius III of Persia (Turkey) — 332 BCE: Alexander conquers Syria and Egypt — 331 BCE: Alexander becomes ruler of the Persian Empire after defeating the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela (Iraqi Kurdistan) — 327 BCE: Alexander invades the Indian subcontinent (Pakistan) — 323 BCE: Alexander dies at Babylon (Iraq) Alexander the Great's Empire as of. Alexander the Great’s Empire at its peak. 14. Unification of China under Emperor Qin Shi Huang, Who Begins Building The Great Wall:  221-206 BCE 45.  The Birth of the Modern Calendar: 45 BCE (Italy) — 45 BCE: Reforms made to the Roman calendar under Julius Caesar create the Julian Calendar, with 365 days in a year divided into 12 months and a leap year every four years (Italy) — 1582: Due to inaccuracies resulting from the Julian Calendar, Pope Gregory XIII issues the Gregorian Calendar, which reduces the number of leap years (Italy) 16.  The Life of Jesus and the Birth of Christianity: c. 4 BCE-70 CE (Israel) — c. 4 BCE: Birth of Jesus — c. 29 CE: Crucifixion of Jesus — c. 50 CE: Paul’s First Letter to the Thessalonians is the earliest known Christian text 17.  The Life of Muhammad and the Birth of Islam: 570-630 CE (Saudi Arabia) — 570 CE: Muhammad is born in Mecca — 622 CE: Muhammad leads the Hejira from Mecca to Medina — 632 CE: The Qu’ran is completed; Muhammad dies 18.  The Franks, Led by Charles Martel, Defeat a Umayyad Caliphate Army under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi at the Battle of Tours-Poitiers, Halting the Muslim Advance into Western Europe: 732 CE (France) 19.  Pope Leo III Crowns Charlemagne, Carolingian King of the Franks and the Lombards, as the First Holy Roman Emperor: 800 CE (France, Germany) Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire. 20. The Invention of Gunpowder and its Use in Weaponry: c. 800-1300 (China) — c. 800: Chinese alchemists seeking an elixir of life produce gunpowder instead — c. 904: First reference to the use of fire arrows (gunpowder-fueled projectiles) in warfare — c. 1000: By this time, fire arrows, fire lances and rocket arrows are commonly used by Chinese armies — c. 1110: First reference to a fireworks display using gunpowder-fueled rockets — c. 1130: Bombs and cannons fueled by gunpowder have appeared in China by this time — c. 1240: Knowledge of gunpowder spreads to the Middle East — c. 1258: First evidence of gunpowder use in India — c. 1300: By this time, gunpowder use has spread throughout Europe 21.  Norse Explorers Discover and Colonize New Lands in the North Atlantic: c. 870-1000 CE (Iceland, Greenland, US) — c. 870: Norse explorers discover and colonize Iceland — c. 986: Erik the Red and settlers from Iceland and Norway establish a colony on the west coast of Greenland   — c. 1000: Leif Erikson establishes a short-lived settlement at Vinland in North America (Canada) — c. 1510: By this time, the Norse settlements in Greenland have been abandoned 22. Norman Conquest of England: 1066 CE (UK) — 9/28/1066: William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, crosses the English Channel and lands at Pevensey — 10/14/1066: William defeats Anglo-Saxon King Harold II, who is killed at the Battle of Hastings — 12/25/1066: After taking London, William is crowned King of England at Westminster Abbey 23. The First University Is Established, at Bologna: 1088 CE (Italy) 24. The First Crusade: 1095-1099 (France, Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Israel) — 1095 CE: Pope Urban II calls on Christians to drive the Muslims out of the Holy Land by force (France) — 1096 CE: The untrained mobs of the People’s Crusade march toward Jerusalem, massacring Jews across Europe, but are slaughtered by the Turks before they reach their goal  — 1097 CE: The armies of the Princes’ Crusade gather outside Constantinople and march to the Levant (Turkey) — 1098 CE: Crusader states are established at Edessa and Antioch (Syria, Turkey) — 1099 CE: After a siege, the Crusaders enter Jerusalem, kill many of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants, and establish the Kingdom of Jerusalem (Israel/Palestine) 25.  King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire Builds Angkor Wat; Originally Dedicated to the Hindu God Vishnu, It Became a Buddhist Temple by the End of the 12th Century: c. 1150 CE (Cambodia) Angkor Wat (2) A view of the Angkor Wat temple complex. 26. Shogun Minamato no Yorimoto Overthrows the Taira Emperor, Establishing the Kamakura Shogunate; Start of 675 Years of Shogunate Rule in Japan: 1192 CE  27. Genghis Khan Establishes a Vast Mongol Empire, Which Is Expanded After His Death: 1206-1260 (Central Asia, China) — 1206: Mongolian leader Temujin defeats his rivals and receives the title Genghis Khan, Universal Ruler of the Mongols (Mongolia) — 1215: Genghis Khan captures the capital of the Jin Dynasty (China) — 1221: The Mongols defeat the Khwarezmid Empire and take over Persia (Iran, Afghanistan) — 1227: Death of Genghis Khan in battle against the Western Xia Dynasty (China) — 1241: The Mongols defeat an army of Poles and Moravians at the Battle of Liegnitz (Poland) — 1258: The Mongols capture and destroy Baghdad, capital of the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate (Iraq) — 1260: The victory of the Islamic Mamluks over the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut signals the waning of the Mongol Empire (Israel/Palestine) Genghis Khan's empire. The Mongol Empire during the life of Genghis Khan. 28. English Nobles Force King John to Sign the Magna Charta Restricting His Powers: 1215 (UK) 29.  Europe Hears Tales of the Far East From Marco Polo: 1271-1300 (Italy; Asia) — 1271-1295: Venetian merchant Marco Polo travels through Asia with his father and uncle, probably going as far as China — c. 1299: While in prison, Marco Polo relates stories of his travels to cellmate Rustichello da Pisa (Italy) — c. 1300: Rustichello da Pisa publishes his version of Marco Polo’s stories as Book of the Marvels of the World  30. The Rise and Fall of the Aztec Civilization: 1325-1521 (Mexico) — 1325: The nomadic Mexica people found the city of Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texacoco (traditional date) — 1428: A Triple Alliance is formed between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan — 1487: For the dedication of the Templo Mayor, Aztec Emperor Ahuitzotl sacrifices 20,000 prisoners of war to the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli — 1519: Tenochtitlan has an estimated population of 200,000-300,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world, when Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrives in November and meets with Aztec ruler Montezuma — 1521: With the aid of local enemies of the Aztecs (including the Texcoco), the Spanish conquer Tenochtitlan and the Aztec Empire A map of the Aztec Empire just before the Spanish invasion. A map of the Aztec Empire just before the Spanish invasion. 31. The Black Death (Bubonic Plague) Devastates Europe, Killing One-Third of the Population: 1347-1348 (Europe) 32. The Renaissance: A Rediscovery of Classical Knowledge Brings About Innovations and Achievements in Arts and Culture: c. 1350-1600 (Italy, Europe) — c. 1350: The Renaissance begins in Florence (Italy) — c. 1410-1420: Florentine artist and architect Filippo Brunelleschi sets out the rules of linear perspective — 1435: Leon Battista Alberti publishes Della Pittura, a treatise on painting — c. 1436: Brunelleschi completes the dome of the Florence Cathedral — 1452: Sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti completes the East Doors of the Florence Baptistery, known as the Gates of Paradise — c. 1486: Sandro Botticelli paints The Birth of Venus — 1501: Michelangelo completes his sculpture of David — c. 1504: Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa — 1508-1512: Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome — 1513: Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince, a treatise on politics sistine-chapel A portion of the frescoes painted by Michelangelo on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, with the Creation of Man in the center. 33. The Inca People Create an Empire: 1438-1533 (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Colombia) — 1438: Formation of the Incan Empire — 1476: The Incas defeat the Chimu civilization (Peru) — 1532: Spanish Conquistador Francisco Pizarro and 150 men set up a meeting with Incan ruler Atahualpa at Cajamarca, but instead take him captive and slaughter his 4,000 unarmed attendants The Incan Empire. The growth of the Incan Empire. 34. Johannes Gutenberg Invents a Printing Press Using Movable Metal Type and Oil-Based Ink, Bringing Inexpensive Printing of Books and Papers to the West: 1440-1455 (Germany) — 1040: Bi Sheng invents movable type printing, but the technology does not travel to the West (China) — 1377: Jikji, the earliest known printed book made with metal movable type, is printed in Korea — c. 1455: The Gutenberg Bible is Gutenberg’s first mass-produced book 35. The Ottoman Turks Take Constantinople, Marking the Fall of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire: 1453 (Turkey) 36. Christopher Columbus Arrives in the West Indies and Claims the Land for Spain; European Conquest of the Americas Begins: 1492 (The Bahamas) columbus voyages A map of the four voyages Columbus made to the Americas between 1492 and 1504. 37. Portuguese Explorer Vasco da Gama Finds a Sea Route from Europe to India, Allowing Portugal To Create a Trading Empire: 1498 38. Spanish and English Explorers Returning to Europe Bring Back New World Foods, Including Tomatoes, Potatoes, Corn (Maize), Squash and Cacao: 1500-1600 39.  The Slave Trade: Enslaved African People Are Brought to the Americas: 1502-1619 (US, Haiti, Dominican Republic) — 1502: Spaniard Juan de Córdoba sends one of his African slaves from Spain to Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic) — 1510: King Ferdinand of Spain authorizes a shipment of 50 African slaves to be sent to Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) — 1619: A Dutch ship brings 20 African slaves to the British colony in Jamestown, Virginia (US) 40. Martin Luther Sends his 95 Theses to the Archbishop of Mainz, Marking the Start of the Protestant Reformation: 1517 (Germany) 41. Suleiman the Magnificent Rules Ottoman Empire During Period of Great Expansion: 1520-1566 (Turkey) ottoman empire under suleiman 42.  Ferdinand Magellan’s Expedition Is the First to Circumnavigates the Globe, Although Magellan Is Killed in the Philippines and Does Not Complete the Voyage: 1522 43. Polish Scientist Nicolaus Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres Shows that the Movement of Heavenly Bodies Is Best Explained By a Heliocentric Model (That Is, the Earth Revolves Around the Sun, and Not the Other Way Around): 1543 44.  England under Queen Elizabeth I Repels a Spanish Invasion by Defeating the Spanish Armada: 1588 (UK) 45.  William Shakespeare Writes Hamlet: 1599-1601 (UK) 46. English Colonists Establish Their First Permanent Settlement in the New World at Jamestown, Virginia: 1607 (US) 47.  Galileo Galilei Publishes The Starry Messenger, Which Announces a Series of Astronomical Discoveries Made Using a Home-Made Telescope: 1609-1610 (Italy) 48. England Undergoes A Civil War: 1642-1660 — 1642: After years of conflict, relations between King Charles I and Parliament break down and civil war begins — 1645: The Parliamentary army wins a decisive victory over Charles at the Battle of Naseby — 1646: Charles surrenders to the Scots, who turn him over to the English — 1649: Charles is tried and convicted of treason, then beheaded — 1653: Oliver Cromwell declares himself Lord Protector of England — 1658: Oliver Cromwell dies; his son Richard becomes Lord Protector — 1660: Charles II, son of Charles I, returns to England from France and restores the monarchy 49. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Builds the Taj Mahal, a Mausoleum for his Favorite Wife, Mumtaz Mahal: 1632-1653 (India) Taj mahal The Taj Mahal. 50.  The Power of Steam is Harnessed in the Steam Engine: 1663-1801 (UK) — 1663: Edward Somerset invents the first steam pump — 1698: Thomas Savery designs an improved steam pump to pump water from mines — 1705-1733: Thomas Newcomen invents the atmospheric engine, a more powerful steam pump, and teams up with Savery to build and distribute the machines — 1765: James Watt invents a steam engine with a separate condenser that is five times more efficient than earlier versions — 1776: Watt teams up with Matthew Boulton to build their first commercial steam engine — 1799: Richard Trevithick builds a high-pressure steam engine — 1801: Oliver Evans builds the first high-pressure steam engine in the US 51.  The Holy Roman Empire, the Hapsburg Monarchy and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Join Forces to Defeat the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna, Halting Ottoman Expansion into Western Europe: 1683 (Austria) 52. Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica Explains Universal Laws of Motion and Gravitation That Provide a Foundation for the Science of Physics Until Einstein: 1687 (UK) 53. Innovations in the British Textile Industry Spark the Industrial Revolution: 1733-1785 — 1733: John Kay patents the flying shuttle — 1764: James Hargreaves invents the spinning Jenny — 1767: Richard Awkwright invents the water frame — 1775-1779: Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule — 1785: Edward Cartwright invents the power loom — 1793: Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin (US) 54. The Boston Tea Party: American Colonists Protest New British Taxes by Throwing Tea in Boston Harbor: 12/16/1773 (US) 55. The American Revolution: 1775-1783 (US) — 4/19/1775: The Battles of Lexington and Concord — 7/4/1776: America Issues its Declaration of Independence from Great Britain — 1777: British General John Burgoyne, surrounded and unreinforced, surrenders his entire army to the Americans at the Battle of Saratoga — 1778: France signs a treaty of alliance with the US — 1781: British General Cornwallis surrenders to George Washington, effectively ending the American Revolutionary War — 1783: The Treaty of Paris officially ends the war between the US and Great Britain 56. The French Revolution: 1789-1799 (France) — 6/20/1789: The Tennis Court Oath: Members of the Third Estate (the National Assembly) vow to stay together until they produce a new constitution for France — 7/14/1789: Parisian revolutionaries storm the Bastille prison, a symbol of the monarchy’s abuse of power — 8/26/1789: Declaration of the Rights of Man — 1792: Wars between Revolutionary France and European powers begin — 1/21/1793: King Louis XVI is beheaded — 4/6/1793: The Committee of Public Safety takes control, exercises dictatorial powers — 1795: The Directory is inaugurated 57. The Medical Revolution: 1796-1885 (UK; US; France) — 1796: Edward Jenner uses live cowpox virus to create the first vaccine, for smallpox (UK) — 1842: Crawford Long uses ether as an anesthetic in surgery for the first time in Georgia. but does not publish his results until 1849 (US) — 1846: William Morton uses ether as an anesthetic in surgery in Massachusetts and receives credit for the discovery (US) — 1860-1864: Louis Pasteur’s experiments prove the germ theory of disease (France) — 1882: Robert Koch shows that a specific bacillus causes a specific disease (Germany) — 1885: Pasteur is the first to use weakened virus to make a vaccine, for rabies (France) 58. The Birth of Rail Transport: 1802-1830 (UK) — 1804: Richard Trevithick’s early steam locomotive pulls a train with 10 tons of iron and 70 passengers nine miles Merthyr Tydfil, to Abercynon in Wales — 1812: Matthew Murray builds the Salamanca, the first commercially-successful steam locomotive, and runs it on the Middleton Railway in Leeds  — 1813: Christopher Blackett and William Hedley build Puffing Billy, a steam locomotive, and run it on the Wylam Colliery Railway — 1814:  George Stephenson improves on earlier designs with the Blücher — 1825: The Stockton & Darlington Railway, the first public steam railway, opens; Stephenson drives his locomotive the Locomotion nine miles in two hours hauling an 80-ton load — 1829: Stephenson’s new locomotive, the Rocket, wins the Rainhill Trials, a steam railway competition in Lancashire — 1830: Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first railway to rely exclusively on steam-powered trains Puffing_Billy_1862 An 1862 photo of the early steam locomotive Puffing Billy. 59. Enslaved People in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, Having Fought a Successful Revolution, Establish the New Nation of Haiti: 1804 60.  The Napoleonic Wars: 1799-1815 (France, Europe) — 1799: Having successfully won many battles, General Napoleon Bonaparte is named First Consul of France and assumes sweeping powers — 1804: Napoleon becomes Emperor of the new French Empire — 1805: The French fleet loses to the British and Spanish, led by Admiral Horatio Nelson in the Battle of Trafalgar (Spain) — 1812: During the French invasion of Russia, Napoleon wins the Battle of Borodino and takes Moscow, but must eventually retreat after huge losses resulting both from Russian troops and the Russian winter (Russia) — 1813: Napoleon’s forces suffer a major defeat at the Battle of Leipzig against a coalition of Russian, Prussian, Austrian and Swedish armies (Germany) — 1814: Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba (Italy) — 1815: Napoleon escapes from Elba and raises an army, but is defeated by British and Prussian Armies Led by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battle of Waterloo (Belgium) — 1815: Napoleon is exiled to the southern Atlantic island of St. Helena, off the coast of Africa 61. The End of the African Slave Trade and Abolition of Slavery: 1807-1888 (UK, US, Mexico, Brazil) — 1807: The United Kingdom abolishes the slave trade — 1808: The United States bans the importation of slaves — 1824: Mexico abolishes slavery — 1833: Slavery is abolished in the British Empire — 1836: The Republic of Texas declares independence from Mexico and reinstates slavery — 1865: The Thirteenth Amendment to the American Constitution abolishes slavery (US) — 1888: Brazil abolishes slavery Official_medallion_of_the_British_Anti-Slavery_Society The official medallion of the British Anti-Slavery Society. 62.  Spain’s Colonies in Central and South America Fight for and Win Independence: 1817-1825 — 1817: José de San Martín defeats Chilean royalists at the Battle of Chacabuco, and enters Santiago, Chile — 1819: The forces of Simón Bolívar defeat the Spanish at the Battle of Boyacá, which leads to the independence of New Granada (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela) — 1819: The Congress of Angostura creates Gran Colombia and Simón Bolívar is elected its president (Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Guyana, Brazil) — 1821: Bolívar’s win at the Battle of Carabobo guarantees the independence of Venezuela — 1824: The Battle of Ayacucho ends the Spanish presence in Peru 63.  The Invention of the Telegraph Revolutionizes Communication: 1832-1840 — 1832: Pavel Schilling creates an electromagnetic telegraph (Estonia) — 1833: Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber build the first electromagnetic telegraph used for regular communication (Germany) — 1836: David Alter invents the first American electric telegraph — 1837: William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone (UK), Edward Davy (US) and Samuel Morse (US) all independently develop commercial electrical telegraphs, but Morse’s system, with his Morse code, quickly spreads through the US — 1840: American Alfred Vail improves Morse code 64.  Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Publish The Communist Manifesto, Which Explains History in Terms of Class Struggle and Proposes That Workers Unite and Overthrow Capitalism: 1848 (UK) 65. Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, which Proves that Natural Selection is the Mechanism of Biological Evolution: 1859 (UK) A first edition copy of Darwin's Origin of Species. A first edition copy of Darwin’s Origin of Species. 66. The American Civil War: 1860-1865 — 1860: Election of Republican Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President leads southern states to secede — February 1861: Seven southern states form the Confederate States of America — 4/12/1861: Confederate soldiers fire on the Union garrison at Ft. Sumter in Charleston Bay (South Carolina) — 1861: Following the commencement of hostilities, four more states join the Confederacy — 1/1/1863: The Emancipation Proclamation frees slaves in rebel areas — 7/1-3/1863: The Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg is the turning point of the war in favor of the Union (Pennsylvania) — 4/9/1865: Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrenders the Army of Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House (Virginia) — 4/15/1865: Assassination of Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth (Washington, D.C.) — 4/26/1865: Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston surrenders the Army of Tennessee to Union General General William T. Sherman (North Carolina) 67. The Meiji Restoration: Tokugawa Yoshinobu Abdicates to Emperor Meiji, Ending Shogun Rule in Japan: 1867 CE 68: Opening of the Suez Canal Linking the Mediterranean and the Red Sea: 1869 (Egypt) 69. Alexander Graham Bell Patents the Telephone: 1876 (US) 70. European Powers Colonize Africa: 1880s (Europe, Africa) — 1830: France invades and colonizes Algeria — 1884-1885: At the Berlin Conference, European leaders divide up Africa — 1885: King Leopold of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State as a private corporate colony (Democratic Republic of Congo) — 1895: France establishes French West Africa, a consolidation of eight French colonial territories (Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger) — 1908: Belgium annexes the Congo Free State — 1910: France establishes French Equatorial Africa from its central African colonies (Chad, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Republic of the Congo, Gabon) — 1912: Italy forms the colony of Italian Libya from colonies taken from the Ottoman Empire A map showing the colonization of Africa by European powers. A map showing the colonization of Africa by European powers. 71. The Suffrage Movement: Women Fight For the Right to Vote: 1893-1928 1848: The Declaration of Sentiments, written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and signed at the Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, NY, calls for giving women the right to vote (US) 1872: Susan B. Anthony is arrested when she votes in the presidential election (US) 1893: The self-governing colony of New Zealand grants suffrage to women; Colorado becomes first US state to grant full voting rights to women 1903: Australia is the first sovereign nation to grant women the right to vote 1906: The Grand Duchy of Finland, part of the Russian Empire, becomes the first country to give women both the right to vote and to run for office 1920: 19th Amendment to the US Constitution grants women the right to vote 1922: Women obtain full voting rights in Ireland 1928: Women in the UK obtain full voting rights 1946: The nations of Cameroon, Kenya, Romania and Venezuela grant women the right to vote 2005: The Kuwaiti Parliament grants women the right to vote and run in elections 2015: Saudi Arabia grants women the right to vote and run for office 72.  The Invention of Radio: 1879-1901 — 1872: James Clerk Maxwell  establishes the mathematical basis for propagating electromagnetic waves through space (Scotland) — 1879: David E. Hughes may be the first to intentionally send a radio signal through space using his spark-gap transmitter (Wales/US) — 1880: Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner (US) invent the photophone, a wireless telephone that transmits sound on a beam of light — 1885: Thomas Edison (US) invents a method of electric wireless communication between ships at sea — 1886: Heinrich Hertz (Germany) conclusively demonstrates the transmission of electromagnetic waves through space to a receiver  — 1890: Édouard Branly (France) improves the receiver device — 1893: Nikola Tesla (Serbia/US) develops a wireless lighting device — 1894: Sir Oliver Lodge (UK) improves Branly’s receiver and demonstrates a radio transmission; Jagadish Chandra Bose (India) demonstrate transmission of radio waves over distance  — 1895: After reading Lodge’s and Tesla’s papers, Guglielmo Marconi (Italy) builds a series of radio devices, including one that can transmit radio waves 1.5 miles; Alexander Popov (Russia) demonstrates a radio transmission — 1896: Marconi moves to England and shows his device to Sir William Preece at the British Telegraph Service  — 1897: Marconi patents his device and starts his own wireless business, which establishes radio stations at various locations — 1898: Tesla demonstrates a remote controlled boat — 1899: Marconi sends radio waves across the English Channel; Bose develops an improved transmitter and receiver; Ferdinand Braun invents the closed circuit system and increases the distance that signals can carry  — 1900: Roberto Landell de Moura (Brazil) invents a radio that can transmit a human voice a distance of eight kilometers — 1901: Marconi claims to send the first transatlantic radio message  — 1906:  Reginald Fessenden makes the the first AM radio broadcast from Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts (US) 73.  The Discovery of X-Rays: 1895 1875: Researchers first noticed a new type of ray emanating from experimental discharge tubes called Crookes tubes 1886: Ivan Pulyui (Ukraine/Germany) discovered that sealed photographic plates darkened when exposed to Crookes tubes 1887: Nikola Tesla (Serbia/US) begins experimenting with the new rays 1891: Fernando Sanford (US) generates and detects the new rays 1895: Wilhelm Röntgen (Germany) begin studying x-rays and announces their existence (giving them the name ‘x-rays’) in a scientific paper; Röntgen identifies medical use of x-rays 1896: Thomas Edison (US) invents the flouroscope for x-ray examinations; John Hall-Edwards (UK) is the first physician to use x-rays under clinical conditions 1913: William D. Coolidge (US) invents the Coolidge tube to generate x-rays, replacing the cold cathode tubes used previously first x-ray One of the first x-ray photographs was made by Wilhelm Röntgen of his wife Bertha’s hand, showing her wedding ring. 74. Orville & Wilbur Wright Fly the First Heavier-than-Air Powered Aircraft: 12/17/1903 (US) The Wright Brothers' first powered flight, December, 1903. The Wright Brothers’ first powered flight, December, 1903. 75. After Defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan Is Recognized as a World Power: 1904-1905 76. Albert Einstein’s Annus Mirabilis: 1905 (Switzerland) — 6/9/1905: Paper explaining the photoelectric effect by means of quanta — 7/18/1905: Paper explaining Brownian motion provides evidence of atoms — 9/26/1905: Einstein publishes the special theory of relativity — 11/21/1905: Einstein shows the equivalence of energy and matter (E = mc2) einstein A photograph of Albert Einstein in about 1905, when he was working in the Swiss Patent Office. 77. World War I: 1914-1918 (Europe, Asia, Africa) — 6/28/1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo triggers war — 5/7/1915: A German U-boat sinks the Lusitania — 1916: Battle of Verdun; Battle of the Somme — June 1917: The US enters the war — December 1917: Russia leaves the war; makes major concessions in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk — 11/9/1918: German Kaiser Wilhelm abdicates — 11/11/1918: An armistice ends the fighting — 1919: The Treaty of Versailles redraws the map of Europe and imposes harsh terms on Germany 78. The Russian Revolution: 1917-1922 — February and March 1917: The February Revolution: Massive uprisings lead to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II; a provisional government is established under Prince Georgy Lvov  — September 1917: The Directorate rules Russia under Alexander Kerensky — October 1917: The October Revolution: Lenin and the Bolsheviks overthrow Kerensky’s government and establish the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the first socialist state — 1918-1922: Russian Civil War between Communists (Reds) and their opponents (Whites) — 1922: 15 republics are united in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)  Lenin speaks to a crowd in 1917. Lenin speaks to a crowd in 1917. 79.  A Global Influenza Epidemic Kills 20 Million People: 1918 80. The Invention of Television: 1925-1929 — 1925: Early television transmissions by John Logie Baird (Scotland), Charles Francis Jenkins (US), Bell Labs (US), Kenjiro Takayanagi (Japan) and Leon Theremin (USSR) — 1926: Advances in TV transmission demonstrated by Baird and Kálmán Tihanyi (Hungary) — 1927: Philo T. Farnsworth (US) patents first complete electronic television system; Herbert Ives and Frank Gray at Bell Labs (US) demonstrate a better quality images than prior systems — 1928: Jenkins receives the first television station license — 1929: Zworykin demonstrates both transmission and reception of images in an electronic system; Farnsworth transmits live human images 81. Global Depression Follows Crash of US Stock Market: 1929-1940 (US; Europe; Asia) — October 1929: US stock market crashes — 1930-1931: Widespread bank failures in US and Europe — November 1932: US elects Franklin Delano Roosevelt as president — 1933-1934: FDR proposes and Congress passes New Deal legislation 82. The Rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis: 1920-1939 (Germany) — 1920: Hitler forms the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis) — 11/8/1923: Hitler and the Nazis attempt to overthrow the government of Bavaria in the failed Beer Hall Putsch — 1925: After being released from prison, Hitler publishes Mein Kampf — 1928-1932: Nazi Party candidates win increasingly larger portion of the popular vote, but never a majority — 1/30/1933: Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany — 1933-1934: Hitler consolidates power; becomes dictator — 1935: Nuremberg Laws strip Jews of German citizenship — 1936: German troops reoccupy the Rhineland; Germany forms Axis alliances with Italy and Japan — 3/14/1938: The Anschluss: Germany invades and occupies Austria — 9/30/1938: In the Munich Agreement, Western European democracies allow Hitler to occupy the Sudetenland — 11/9/1938: Kristallnacht: Jewish shops and synagogues are destroyed — 3/15/1939: Hitler invades and occupies Czechoslovakia  Adolf Hitler and Hermann Goering wave to a torchlight parade in honor of Hitler's appointment as chancellor. Adolf Hitler and Hermann Goering wave to a torchlight parade in honor of Hitler’s appointment as chancellor. 83. Revolution in China: 1911-1949 — 1911: The Xinhai Revolution overthrows the Qing dynasty — 1912: The Republic of China is established — 1927: Civil war breaks out between the Communists and the Nationalists — 1934-1935: The Long March — 1937-1945: During the Sino-Japanese War, Communists and Nationalists join forces to fight their common enemy, Japan — 1945: Civil war resumes  — 1949: After defeating the Kuomintang, Chinese Communists under Mao Tse Tung proclaim the People’s Republic of China; Chiang Kai-Shek retreats to Taiwan 84. World War II: 1939-1945 (US, Europe, Asia, Africa) — 9/1/1939: Germany invades Poland, triggering WW II — 12/7/1941: Japanese surprise attack on US fleet at Pearl Harbor; US enters war — 1/20/1942: The Final Solution: At the Wannsee Conference, Nazis make plans to exterminate the Jews (Germany) — 1942-1943: Defeat of German armies by the USSR in the Battle of Stalingrad marks a turning point in the war (Russia) — 6/6/1944: Allied Armies Invade Nazi-Occupied France at Normandy on D-Day (France) — 5/8/1945: Nazi Germany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies — 8/6, 9/1945: US drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, leading to Japanese surrender 85. The United Nations Is Formed: 1945-1946 (Europe, N. & S. America, Asia, Africa, Australia) — 10/24/1945: UN Charter takes effect, with 51 member nations — 1/10/1946: First meeting of General Assembly (UK) The first meeting of the UN General Assembly took place in London, UK on January 10, 1946. The first meeting of the UN General Assembly took place in London, UK on January 10, 1946. 86.  The Digital Revolution: The Invention of the Digital Electric Computer — 1833: Charles Babbage designs the Difference Machine but does not build it (UK) — 1939: John V. Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry create the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (US) — 1940: George Stibitz and his team demonstrate the Complex Number Calculator — 1941: Konrad Zuse creates the Z3 computer (Germany) — 1943: Max Newman, Tommy Flowers and others build the Mk I Colossus (UK) — 1944: The Mk II Colossus; the Harvard Mark I begins operation (US) — 1945: Konrad Zuse develops the Z4; John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert create ENIAC (US) — 1958: Invention of the integrated circuit (microchip) (US) — 1965: Olivetti introduces the Programma 101, the first commercially produced personal desktop computer (Italy) 87. After Long Struggle, India Obtains Its Independence from the UK: 1947 88. The Cold War: 1945-1989 (US, Russia, Europe) — 3/5/1946: Winston Churchill Gives “Iron Curtain” Speech (US) — 1948-1949: US and UK overcome Berlin Blockade by USSR through the Berlin Airlift — 1961: Building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin (Germany) 89. The Discovery of the Double Helical Structure of DNA: 1953 (UK) 90. U.S. Civil Rights Movement: 1954-1968 (US) — 5/17/1954: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated education is unconstitutional — 12/1/1955: Rosa Parks refuses to sit in the back of the bus, sparking Montgomery bus boycott — 1957: President Eisenhower sends US troops to protect black students attending Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas — 1960: First lunch counter protest in Greensboro, North Carolina — 8/28/1963: Martin Luther King, Jr. leads march on Washington, makes “I Have a Dream” speech — 9/15/1963: Four black girls killed in bombing of church in Birmingham, Alabama — 7/2/1964: President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act — 2/21/1965: Assassination of Malcolm X — 3/7/1965: Protest march from Selma  to Montgomery, Alabama — 8/6/1965: President Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act — 4/4/1968: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers his Martin Luther King, Jr. delivers his “I Have a Dream” speech at the 1963 March on Washington. 91. The Vietnam War: 1955-1975 (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos) — 1954: After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu ends French rule in Indochina, Vietnam is divided into North and South Vietnam — 1955: North Vietnam begins guerrilla attacks on South Vietnam — 1960: North Vietnam backs formation of the Viet Cong, which begins civil war in South Vietnam — 1961: US President Kennedy sends military personnel and equipment to aid South Vietnam against the Viet Cong — 1963: The US backs a violent coup in South Vietnam that results in the death of President Ngo Dinh Diem — 1964: Congress authorizes the US to intervene in the war through the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution — 1965: First US combat troops land at Da Nang — 1967: By this time, 500,000 American troops are stationed in Vietnam; anti-war protests erupt throughout US — 1968: The Tet Offensive, a combined assault by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops, is a turning point in the war; later in the year, US soldiers commit the Mai Lai massacre — 1969: Death of North Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh — 1970: US bombing of Cambodia revealed, sparking wave of protests and Kent State shootings — 1971: The New York Times publishes the leaked Pentagon Papers — 1973: The Paris Peace Accords end US involvement in the war — 1975: Saigon falls, South Vietnam surrenders and Vietnam is unified as a single nation 92. Soviet Union Launches Sputnik, First Man-Made Satellite: 10/4/1957 (Russia) 93. The U.S. Food & Drug Administration Approves the First Contraceptive Pill: 5/9/1960 (US) 94.  Yuri Gagarin Becomes the First Man in Space: 1961 (Russia) 95. U.S. President John F. Kennedy Is Assassinated in Dallas, Texas: 11/22/1963 (US) 96. Apollo 11 Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin Land on the Moon and Walk on its Surface: 7/20-21/1969 (US, Moon) Buzz Aldrin on the Moon is a 1969 photograph by Neil Armstrong. Buzz Aldrin on the Moon is a 1969 photograph by Neil Armstrong. 97.  The Birth of the Internet: 1965-1995 (US) — 1965: Lawrence G. Roberts and Thomas Merrill create the first wide-area computer network — 1967: Roberts publishes a plan for the ARPANET — 1968: Frank Heart’s team at Bolt Beranek and Newman builds packet switches called Interface Message Processors (IMPs)   — September 1969: BBN installs the first IMP at UCLA, creating the first node; Doug Engelbart’s Stanford Research Institute (SRI) provided the second node — October 1969: The first message is sent between UCLA and SRI — December 1969: Four computers are linked in the ARPANET — 1970: S. Crocker and his Network Working Group finish the ARPANET’s initial host-to-host protocol, the Network Control Protocol (NCP) — 1971: The Merit Network and Tymnet networks become operational — 1973: The first trans-Atlantic transmission occurs, to University College of London — 1974: The International Telecommunication Union develops X.25 packet switching network standards — 1977: Dennis Hayes and Dale Heatherington invent the PC modem — 1978: The first online bulletin board — 1979: Usenet and CompuServe are launched — 1981: The National Science Foundation (NSF) creates CSNET and links it to ARPANET — 1983: ARPANET computers switch from the NCP protocol to the TCP/IP protocol — 1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered — 1986: NSF creates NSFNET, which is linked with ARPANET — 1988: Internet Relay Chat is introduced — 1989: America Online (AOL) is launched — 1990: ARPANET is decommissioned in favor of NSFNET — 1995: NSFNET is decommissioned and replaced by networks operated by several commercial Internet service providers 98. The Cold War Ends: 1989-1991 (Europe, Russia) — 11/9/1989: Opening of gates between East and West Berlin; demolition of Berlin Wall begins (Germany) — 1989-1990: Fall of Communist governments in Eastern Europe — 1990: Reunification of Germany — 12/26/1991: Soviet Union is dissolved Germans celebrate the fall of the Berlin wall in November 1989. Germans celebrate the fall of the Berlin wall in November 1989. 99. The End of Apartheid in South Africa: 1990-1994 — 1990: South African President F.W. de Klerk lifts the ban on the African National Congress; ANC leader Nelson Mandela is released after 27 years in prison — 1991: De Klerk repeals apartheid laws — 1994: In the first multiracial elections in South Africa, Nelson Mandela is elected president 100. Al Qaeda Terrorists Attack New York City and Washington, D.C. With Hijacked Planes, Destroying World Trade Towers; US Declares “War on Terror”: 9/11/2001 (US) september 11 September 11, 2001 – New York City. The iconic twin towers of downtown Manhattan’s World Trade Center were a triumph of human imagination and will. Completed in 1973, the towers stood at 110 stories each, accommodating 50,000 workers and 200,000 daily visitors in 10 million square feet of space. They were the hub of the bustling Financial District, a top tourist attraction and a symbol of New York City’s–and America’s–steadfast devotion to progress and the future. On September 11, 2001, the World Trade Center became the target of a massive terrorist attack that took the lives of nearly 3,000 people. The disaster also radically altered the skyline of New York City, destroying the twin columns of glass and steel that over the years had come to embody the city itself. World Trade Center: A Dream Is Born The 1939 New York World’s Fair included an exhibit called the World Trade Center that was dedicated to the concept of “world peace through trade.” Seven years later, one of the exhibit’s organizers, Winthrop W. Aldrich, headed a new state agency with the proposed goal of creating a permanent trade exposition based in New York. Market research indicated that the city would benefit more by modernizing its ports, however, and the plan was soon scrapped. Did you know? More than 10,000 workers were involved in building the World Trade Center complex. Aldrich’s nephew, David Rockefeller, didn’t forget the idea. The grandson of Standard Oil founder John D. Rockefeller, David decided to revive the World Trade Center concept as the core of a revitalized lower Manhattan. In May 1959, Rockefeller formed the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association, which planned a $250 million complex near the Fulton Fish Market on the East River, including a single 70-story office tower and several smaller buildings. The Port Authority Signs On Play Video World Trade Center For the resources and power to make the project work, Rockefeller turned to the Port of New York Authority. The Port Authority had been chartered in 1921 by New York and New Jersey to build and operate all transportation terminals and facilities within a 25-mile radius of the Statue of Liberty.  By 1960, after constructing the Lincoln Tunnel and the George Washington Bridge, the Port Authority was rapidly expanding its influence, with 5,000 employees and more than $1 billion in freight and transportation structures all presided over by its powerful director, Austin J. Tobin. The Port Authority had just agreed to take over and renovate New Jersey’s Hudson and Manhattan commuter railroad, the PATH (Port Authority Trans Hudson) train, built in 1908. The PATH terminal was on the west side of Lower Manhattan, and Tobin’s team decided to move the prospective trade center location from east to west, combining the two projects.  A region bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty and West Streets–known as “Radio Row” for its many consumer electronics shops–would have to be razed for the trade center to be built. After a bitter legal battle with representatives of the Radio Row merchants, the Port Authority won the right to continue its plan. Sights Set on Record-Breaking Height By this time, the Port Authority had decided that the trade center should replace the 1,250-foot-high Empire State Building, built in 1931, as the world’s tallest building. To fulfill the Port Authority’s requirement, architect Minoru Yamasaki designed two towers of 110 stories each.  Instead of the traditional stacked glass-and-steel box construction of many New York skyscrapers, Yamasaki worked with structural engineers to come up with a revolutionary design: two hollow tubes, supported by closely spaced steel columns encased in aluminum. Floor trusses connected this exterior steel lattice to the central steel core of the building. In this way, the “skin” of the building would be strong enough that internal columns wouldn’t be necessary to hold it together. Construction began in February 1967, after the Port Authority faced down criticism about the towers’ safety and viability from many powerful figures, including real estate tycoon (and Empire State Building owner) Lawrence Wien. Wien even ran an ad in the New York Times in May 1968 predicting that a commercial airliner was likely to fly into the towers.  Plans had already been made to guard against such an accident–which had happened in July 1945 with a smaller plane at the Empire State–and the towers were designed to be safe in a collision with a fully loaded 707 plane (the largest existing plane at the time). It was assumed such a plane would have to be lost in fog for such an event to occur; a terrorist attack was never envisioned. Feats of Engineering at the World Trade Center Twin Towers, World Trade Center HULTON ARCHIVE/GETTY IMAGES VIEW OF THE WORLD TRADE CENTER UNDER CONSTRUCTION, WITH A SIGN ANNOUNCING THE COMPLETION SCHEDULE, CIRCA 1969. Because the ground in lower Manhattan was largely landfill, engineers would have to dig down 70 feet to reach bedrock. Excavating machines dug a three-foot-wide trench down to the bedrock, and as dirt and rock were removed, they were replaced by slurry: a mixture of water and bentonite, a type of clay that expands when wet to plug any hole along the side of the trench. Workers then lowered a 22-ton, seven-story-high steel cage into the trench and filled it with concrete by using a long pipe. As the concrete flowed in, it displaced the bentonite slurry.  By making more than 150 of these slurry trench segments, workers enclosed an area two blocks wide and four blocks long. Called the “bathtub,” it was used to seal the basements of the towers and keep water from the Hudson River out of the foundation. All in all, one million cubic yards of landfill had to be removed. The Port Authority used this landfill to create the $90 million worth of land that would become Battery Park City. To piece the steel frame of the building together, engineers brought in Australian-made “kangaroo” cranes, self-powered cranes powered by diesel motors that could hoist themselves up as the building grew higher.  At the end of construction, these cranes had to be disassembled and brought down by elevator. When the towers were finished, each one would have 97 passenger elevators, capable of carrying loads of up to 10,000 pounds at speeds of up to 1,600 feet per minute. In all, the towers were assembled from more than 200,000 pieces of steel manufactured around the country, 3,000 miles of electrical wiring, 425,000 cubic yards of concrete, 40,000 doors, 43,600 windows and six acres of marble. World Trade Center: A Dream Come True The last piece of steel was put in place on the north tower (One World Trade Center) on December 23, 1970; the south tower (Two World Trade Center) was topped off in July of the next year. Construction went on until April 1973, when the five-acre outdoor plaza, dominated by a 25-foot-tall bronze sculpture by Fritz Koenig, was completed. At the official ribbon cutting ceremony on April 4, Governor Nelson Rockefeller (David’s brother) proclaimed triumphantly, “It’s not too often that we see a dream come true. Today, we have.” At 1,360 feet, the World Trade Center towers were the tallest buildings in the world for less than a year; they were soon surpassed by Chicago’s Sears Tower. Still, the towers held an incomparable mystique. They inspired incredible stunts, beginning in August 1974, when Philippe Petit walked a high wire between the two towers. In May 1977, George Willig earned himself the nickname of “the Human Fly” by hoisting himself to the top of the south tower using homemade climbing devices. The Port Authority loved these stunts because they endeared the towers to the public and made them seem like giant toys. They worked at turning the towers into an attraction, adding the Windows on the World restaurant, which opened on the 107th floor of the north tower in April 1976 and was an immediate hit.  By 1983, World Trade Center revenues had jumped to $204 million, and space was in high demand. Smaller importers-exporters were now being pushed out by rising rents, making way for major businesses. 1993 Bombing of the World Trade Center New York City Police officers view the damage caused by a truck bomb that exploded in the garage of New York's World Trade Center, 1993, that killed six people and injured more than 1,000. RICHARD DREW/AP/REX/SHUTTERSTOCK NEW YORK CITY POLICE OFFICERS VIEW THE DAMAGE CAUSED BY A TRUCK BOMB THAT EXPLODED IN THE GARAGE OF NEW YORK’S WORLD TRADE CENTER, 1993, THAT KILLED SIX PEOPLE AND INJURED MORE THAN 1,000. (CREDIT: RICHARD DREW/AP/REX/SHUTTERSTOCK) The first major test of the trade center’s structural integrity came on February 26, 1993, when a bomb with the destructive power equal to 2,200 pounds of TNT exploded in the parking garage of the second floor basement of the north tower. The blast killed six people, injured more than 1,000 others and caused an estimated $600 million in damage. Six Islamic extremists were tried and convicted in connection with the plot. The towers reopened 20 days after the bombing with new security measures in place, including restrictions to parking lot access and electronic identification badges for building tenants. Over the next eight years, the Port Authority spent a total of $700 million on renovations, with safety upgrades like battery-powered stairway lights and a separate emergency command center in each building. Mayor Rudy Giuliani set up a high-tech emergency operations command center, dubbed “the Bunker,” at 7 World Trade Center, a 47-story office building adjoining the towers. The World Trade Center on September 11th the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, 9/11, ground zero, 9/11 debris, 9/11 wreckage, manhattan The wreckage of the World Trade Center smoulders in this aerial view of Manhattan taken September 15, 2001. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, planes hitting the twin towers A series of images showing the planes hitting the towers on September 11, 2001. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, rescue worker, the world trade center evacuation, collapse of the twin towers A rescue worker helps people evacuate the World Trade Center area after the collapse of the towers. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, ruined base of the world trade center A piece of the outer frame of the building is all that is left standing in the ruined base of the World Trade Center. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, the world trade center debris, ground zero, firefighter, thermal imaging, 9/11 survivors, 9/11 debris A firefighter uses a thermal imaging device to look for signs of life during the morning of September 12, about 24 hours after the first airplane hit the World Trade Center. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, the world trade center debris, ground zero, mta workers, rescue and recovery efforts MTA workers assist in rescue and recovery efforts at the site of the World Trade Center in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, the world trade center debris, ground zero An aerial view of the remains of the Twin Towers and World Trade Center, eight days after they were destroyed by he terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The site soon became known as Ground Zero. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, the world trade center debris, ground zero An NYPD patrol car, destroyed by falling debris from the collapse of the World Trade Center, sits amid the rubble at ground zero on the night of September 11, 2001. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, world trade center debris, ground zero, office near ground zero An office space is destroyed and covered with debris from the collapse of the World Trade Center. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, missing people, 9/11 families, union square In the days after 9/11 families of missing people put up thousands of posters with photos and descriptions of their loved ones. Parks like Union Square became gathering points for people to come together, share stories and lend support. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, mayor rudolph giuliani, the new city fire department chief, peter j. ganci, firefighters New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani at the funeral for New York City Fire Department Chief Peter J. Ganci. Chief Ganci, a 33-year veteran of the New York City Fire department, and its highest ranking uniformed officer, was killed during the collapse of the World Trade Center. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, 9/11, ground zero, mourners, funeral, new york city firefighters Mourners at a funeral for one of the New York City firefighters killed on September 11, 2001. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, missing people, 9/11 memorial, matt heard, missing people flyers Flyer asking for help in locating Matt Heard, a missing Morgan Stanley worker, surrounded by candles at a memorial for victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, 9/11, ground zero, firefighters, fallen firefighters, 9/11 firefighter statue, 9/11 shrine A statue becomes a shrine to fallen firefighters who died during the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings. the world trade center, september 11, 2001, september 11th attacks, terrorist attacks, the twin towers, ground zero, 9/11 memorial site, tribute in light One of the two Tribute in Light columns at Ground Zero, memorials to the victims of the September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center's Twin Towers. 1 / 15: REUTERS/CORBIS In July 2001, just two months before the terrorist attacks of September 11, the Port Authority agreed to lease the twin towers to Larry Silverstein, a New York City developer. Silverstein agreed to pay the equivalent of $3.2 billion over the next 99 years. At the time, over 99 percent of the 10.4 million square feet controlled by the Port Authority was occupied. The impact of the two planes that hit the World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001, was more devastating than any of the building’s designers and engineers had ever imagined. The first plane ripped a hole in the north tower from the 94th to the 98th floors, causing massive structural damage and igniting some 3,000 of the 10,000 gallons of jet fuel the plane was carrying. The second plane hit the south tower at an even faster speed, striking the corner and gashing the building from the 84th to the 78th floors. The heroic efforts of the city’s fire and police departments and other emergency services helped 25,000 people escape from the site on 9/11 before the unthinkable occurred. The damage done at each point of impact forced the physical weight of the towers to be redistributed, and the undamaged part below the hole had to support the floors above. At the same time, the fires raging in both buildings weakened the steel trusses holding up each floor. With damage to a greater number of floors lower down on the building, the south tower gave way first, crumbling to the ground at 9:59 a.m., only 56 minutes after being hit. The north tower collapsed less than a half hour later, at 10:28 a.m. Debris from the falling towers ignited fires in the remaining buildings of the trade center complex, including 7 World Trade, which burned for most of the day before collapsing at 5:20 p.m. Overwhelmed by horror, shock and grief, New Yorkers and people around the world trained their eyes on “Ground Zero,” where the fall of a treasured icon of American industry and ingenuity had left a gaping hole in the sky. READ MORE: How the Design of the World Trade Center Claimed Lives on 9/11 One World Trade Center Play Video 9/11: Rebuilding of Ground Zero That hole in the sky would eventually be filled by One World Trade Center, or “The Freedom Tower,” which rises even higher than the Twin Towers it was built to honor. At a symbolic 1,776 feet tall, One World Trade is the tallest building in the United States and Western Hemisphere, overtaking Sears Tower in Chicago. Built on the original 6 World Trade Center, it was originally designed by architect Daniel Libeskind to be an asymmetrical tower inspired by the Statue of Liberty.  In 2004, architect David Childs, known for designing both the Burj Khalifa and the Willis Tower, took over. The cornerstone was laid on July 4, 2004, but the building did not open until November 3, 2014. Architecture critic Kurt Andersen wrote, “The fact that it’s taken more than a decade to finish, I think —the gradualism—makes that sense of emblematic rebirth more acute and irresistible.” One World Trade is 104 stories tall and has three million square feet of office space topped off by One World Observatory, an observation deck, bar, and restaurant open to the pubic. It spans from floors 100-102 and offers visitors panoramic views of New York City. Rebuilding the World Trade Center A new tower at 7 World Trade Center opened in 2006. The $2 billion 4 World Trade Center followed in 2013. The World Trade Center Oculus, a glass and steel transit concourse and shopping center designed by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, opened to the public in 2016, while the 1,155 foot tall 3 World Trade Center opened in 2018. Silverstein’s 2 World Trade Center and 5 World Trade Center remain incomplete. The rebuilt 16-acre World Trade Center site also includes the National 9/11 Memorial designed by Michael Arad. His design, “Reflecting Absence,” includes two reflecting pools in the footprints of the former Twin Towers surrounded by bronze panels with the names of all 2,983 victims of the 1993 and 2001 World Trade Center attacks.  911
  • Condition: In Excellent Condition
  • Denomination: Commemerative
  • Year of Issue: 2023
  • Number of Pieces: 1
  • Time Period: 2000s
  • Fineness: 0.5
  • Collection: Tower of London
  • Features: Commemorative
  • Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
  • Country of Origin: Great Britain
  • Colour: Gold

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