Antike Silbermünze Vintage grünes Fenster Mineralkunst alter Neoklassizismus Pantheon

EUR 18,08 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag, EUR 6,95 Versand, 30-Tag Rücknahmen, eBay-Käuferschutz
Verkäufer: lasvegasormonaco ✉️ (3.187) 99.7%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 266631093695 Antike Silbermünze Vintage grünes Fenster Mineralkunst alter Neoklassizismus Pantheon. What Is Known (and Not Known) About the Bermuda Triangle. Basilica of the Sacré Coeur. 3 Geography. 10 Classical Music Composers to Know. Macro of sheet music. Election - Button that says Vote. Badge pin stars and stripes politics campaign. Paris Coin with Green Window 3D effect Silver Plated Paris Coin with see through Green faux Emerald enamelled   mineral window The front is the Arc de Triomphe in Paris  opposite is the Patheon also in Paris  There is also an Emblem which states Republic of Palau Material: Zinc Alloy Diameter: 50 mm Thickness: 4mm Weight: 54g . A Beautiful coin and Magnificent Keepsake Souvenir to Commemorate a Great World Landmark In Excellent Condition Starting at a Penny...With No Reserve..If your the only bidder you win it for 1p....Grab a Bargain!!!! Click Here to Check out my other Similar Coins! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback from 2000 satisfied customers over the past 10 years I always discount shipping / postage on multiple items  All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted. 

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A wonderful item for anyone who loves the Royal Family

It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop. This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage.  "e have decided to sell some of her items to raise money for a Memorial Bench with a plaque  Where we can sit and remember her on Summer Days  I hope it will find a good home In Very good  condition  for over 126 Years Old   Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos.  They don't  do the plate  justice which looks a lot better in real life Like all my Auctions Bidding starts a a penny with no reserve... if your the only bidder you win it for 1p...Grab a Bargain! Click Here to Check out my Other Antique Items & Coins Bid with Confidence - Check My 100% Positive Feedback from over 1,000 Satisfied Customers I have over 10 years of Ebay Selling Experience - So Why Not Treat Yourself? I have got married recently and need to raise funds to meet the costs also we are planning to move into a house together  I always combined postage on multiple items Instant Feedback Automatically Left Immediately after Receiving Payment All Items Sent out within 24 hours of Receiving Payment.

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Paris, France Jump to:navigation, search Previous (Parenting)Next (Paris Commune) Ville de Paris Flag of Paris Coat of arms of Paris City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: "Tossed by the waves, she does not sink") Tour eiffel at sunrise from the trocadero.jpg The Eiffel Tower in Paris, as seen from the esplanade du Trocadéro. Paris plan pointer b jms.gifMap highlighting the commune of Paris Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country Flag of France France Region Île-de-France Department Paris (75) Subdivisions 20 arrondissements Mayor Anne Hidalgo  (PS) (2020–2026) City Statistics Land area¹ 105.4 km² Population² 1st in France  - January 2018[1] 2,175,601  - Density 21,000/km² (2013) Urban Spread Urban Area 2,853.5 km² (2020)  - Population 10,785,092 (2020) Metro Area 18,940.7 km² (2020)  - Population 13,024,518 (2020) ¹ French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km² (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries. ² Population sans doubles comptes: single count of residents of multiple communes (e.g. students and military personnel). France Paris is the capital city of France, situated on the River Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region ("Région parisienne"). The Paris "aire urbaine" (roughly: "metropolitan area") is one of the most populated areas of its kind in Europe, with a population of roughly 12 million, including 10 million in the Paris urban area, plus the population of the commuter belt surrounding it. Paris has a population of a little over 2 million within city limits. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early beginnings 2.2 Middle Ages 2.3 Nineteenth century 2.4 Twentieth century 3 Geography 3.1 Topography 3.2 Climate 4 Cityscape 4.1 Architecture 4.2 Districts and Historical Centers 4.3 Monuments and landmarks 4.4 Parks and gardens 4.5 Cemeteries 5 Culture 5.1 Entertainment 5.2 Tourism 5.3 Sports 6 Economy 7 Demography 7.1 Density 7.2 The Paris Agglomeration 7.3 Immigration 8 Administration 8.1 Capital of France 8.2 City Government 8.3 Municipal Offices 8.4 Capital of the Île-de-France région 8.5 Intercommunality 9 Education 9.1 Universities 9.2 Grandes écoles 9.3 Classes Préparatoires 10 Infrastructure 10.1 Transport 10.2 Water and sanitation 11 International Relations 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links 15 Credits An important settlement for more than two millennia, its location at a crossroads between land and river trade routes in lands of abundant agriculture had made it one of the principal cities of France by the tenth century, endowed with royal palaces, wealthy abbeys and a cathedral; by the twelfth century Paris had become one of Europe's foremost centers of learning and the arts. During the last nine hundred years Paris was the center of important Western philosophical and political developments: the University of Paris was home to many major medieval philosophers and early scientists; Paris was the site of the French Revolution; and its rich cultural milieu and wealthy patrons provided an intellectual environment in which innovative artists and thinkers flourished. Today Paris is one of the world's leading business and cultural centers, and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, business, fashion, and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the major global cities. Today, the city serves as an important hub of intercontinental transportation and is home to universities, sport events, opera companies, and museums of international renown, making it the most popular tourist destination in the world with over 30 million foreign visitors per year. Etymology The name Paris, pronounced [ˈpærɪs] in English and [paʀi] in French, derives from that of its pre-Roman-era inhabitants, the Gaulish tribe known as the Parisii. The city was called Lutetia (/lutetja/) during the first- to sixth-century Roman occupation, but the present name began to take hold towards the end of that period. Paris has many nicknames, but its most famous is 'The City of Light' (La Ville-lumière), a name it owes both to its fame as a centre of education and ideas and its early adoption of street-lighting. Paris since the early twentieth century has also been known in Parisian slang as Paname ([panam]; (Moi j'suis d'Paname, "I'm from Paname"), a slang name that has been regaining favor with young people in recent years. Paris's inhabitants are known in English as "Parisians" ([pʰəˈɹɪzɪənz] or [pʰəˈɹiːʒn̩z]) and as Parisiens in French. Parisians are often pejoratively called Parigots ([paʀigo]) by those living outside the Paris Region, but this is a term sometimes considered endearing by Parisians themselves. History Early beginnings The earliest signs of permanent habitation in the Paris area date from around 4200 B.C.E.[2] Known as boatsmen and traders, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, the Parisii, settled the area near the river Seine from around B.C.E. Did you know? The name "Paris" is derived from its early inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe The Roman westward campaigns had conquered the Paris basin in 52 B.C.E.[2] A permanent Roman settlement began towards the end of the same century on Paris' Rive Gauche (Left Bank), Sainte Geneviève Hill and Île de la Cité island. The Gallo-Roman town, first called Lutetia, but later becoming Gallicised Lutèce, expanded greatly over the following centuries, becoming a prosperous city with palaces, a forum, baths, temples, theatres, and an amphitheatre.[2] The collapse of the Roman Empire and third-century Germanic invasions sent the city into a period of decline: by 400 C.E. Lutèce, largely abandoned by its inhabitants, was little more than a garrison town entrenched on its hastily fortified central island.[2] The city reclaimed its original "Paris" appellation towards the end of the Roman occupation. Middle Ages View of the Louvre castle from the fifteenth century Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Around 500 C.E., Paris was the capital of the Frankish king Clovis I, who commissioned the first cathedral and its first abbey dedicated to his contemporary, later patron saint of the city, Sainte Geneviève. On the death of Clovis, the Frankish kingdom was divided, and Paris became the capital of a much smaller sovereign state. By the time of the Carolingian dynasty in the ninth century, Paris was little more than a feudal county stronghold. The Counts of Paris gradually rose to prominence and eventually wielded greater power than the Kings of Francia occidentalis. Odo, Count of Paris was elected king in place of the incumbent Charles the Fat, because of the fame he acquired in his defense of Paris during the Viking siege (Siege of Paris, 885-886). Although the Cité island had survived the Viking attacks, most of the city on the unprotected Rive Gauche (Left Bank) was destroyed; rather than rebuild there, after drying marshlands to the north of the island, Paris began to expand onto the Rive Droite (Right Bank). In 987 C.E., Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, was elected King of France, founding the Capetian dynasty which raised Paris to become France's capital. From 1190, King Philip II of France (Philip Augustus) enclosed Paris on both banks by building a wall with the Louvre as its western fortress. In 1200 he chartered the University of Paris which attracted scholars and visitors from across Europe. During this period the city developed a spatial distribution of activities that can still be seen today: the central island housed government and ecclesiastical institutions, the left bank became a scholastic centre with the University and colleges, while the right bank developed as the centre of commerce and trade around the central Les Halles marketplace. While occupied by the English-allied Burgundians during the Hundred Years' War, Paris lost its position as seat of the French realm, but regained its title when Charles VII of France reclaimed the city in 1437. Although Paris was once again the capital, the Crown preferred to remain in its Loire Valley castles. Paris was a stronghold of the Catholic League, during the French Wars of Religion, which culminating in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572). After capturing the city from the Catholic party, King Henry IV of France re-established the royal court in Paris in 1594. During the “Fronde,” (1648–1653) Parisians rose in rebellion and the royal family fled the city King Louis XIV of France moved the royal court permanently to Versailles in 1682. A century later, Paris became the center of the French Revolution, with the Storming of the Bastille in 1789 and the overthrow of the monarchy in 1792. Nineteenth century Gare du Nord, a symbol of the Industrial Revolution. - Train stations have often been called the cathedrals of the nineteenth century. The Industrial Revolution, the French Second Empire, and the Belle Époque brought Paris the greatest development in its history. From the 1840s, rail transport allowed an unprecedented flow of migrants into Paris, attracted by employment in the new industries in the suburbs. The city underwent a massive renovation under Napoleon III and his préfet Baron Haussmann, who leveled entire districts of narrow, winding medieval streets to create the network of wide avenues and neo-classical façades of modern Paris, with the added incentive that in case of future revolts or revolutions, artillery and rifles could now be utilized efficiently to control crowds. Cholera epidemics in 1832 and 1849 affected the population of Paris—the 1832 epidemic alone claimed 20,000 of the then population of 650,000. Paris also suffered greatly from the Siege of Paris which ended the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), and the ensuing civil war (Commune of Paris, 1871) killed thousands and sent many of Paris's administrative centers (and city archives) up in flames. Paris recovered from these events to host the famous Universal Expositions of the late nineteenth century. The Eiffel Tower was built for the French Revolution centennial Exposition Universelle (1889), as a "temporary" display of architectural engineering prowess, but remained the world's tallest building until 1930, and is the city's best-known landmark. The first line of the Paris Métro opened for the [[Exposition Universelle (1900) and was an attraction in itself for visitors from the world over. Paris's World's Fairs helped to establish the city as a tourist destination and an attractive setting for international technology and trade shows. Twentieth century During World War I, Paris was at the forefront of the war effort, having been spared from German invasion by the French and British victory at the First Battle of the Marne in 1914. In 1918-1919, it was the scene of Allied victory parades and peace negotiations. In the period between the World Wars, Paris was famed for its cultural and artistic communities and its nightlife. The city became a gathering place for artists from around the world, from exiled Russian composer Stravinsky and Spanish painters Picasso and Dalí to American writer Hemingway. In June 1940, five weeks after the start of the German attack on France, Paris fell to German Nazi occupation forces that remained there until the city was liberated by the Allies in August of 1944. After the Normandy invasion, Paris waited for liberation. Central Paris endured World War II practically unscathed, as it contained no strategic targets for bombers; the train stations in central Paris are terminal stations, and major factories were located in the suburbs. German General von Choltitz refused to carry out Hitler's order that all Parisian monuments be destroyed before any German retreat. During the post-war era, Paris experienced its largest development since the end of the Belle Époque in 1914. The suburbs began to expand considerably, with the construction of large social estates known as cités and the beginning of the business district “La Défense.” A comprehensive express subway network, the RER, was built to complement the Métro and serve the distant suburbs, while a network of freeways was developed in the suburbs, centered on the Périphérique expressway circling around the city. Since the 1970s, many inner suburbs of Paris (especially the eastern ones) have experienced deindustrialization, and the once-thriving cités have gradually become ghettos for immigrants and oases of unemployment. At the same time, the City of Paris (within the Périphérique ring) and the western and southern suburbs have successfully shifted their economic base from traditional manufacturing to high value-added services and high-tech manufacturing, generating great wealth for their residents, whose per capita income is among the highest in Europe. The widening social gap between these two areas has led to periodic unrest since the mid-1980s, such as the 2005 riots which were largely concentrated in the northeastern suburbs. Geography Topography View from the top of the Eiffel tower, looking north. Paris is located on a north-bending arc of the River Seine and includes two islands, the Île Saint-Louis and the larger Île de la Cité which forms the oldest part of the city. Paris has several prominent hills, of which the highest is Montmartre at 130 metres (426 ft) above sea level. Paris, excluding the outlying parks of Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes, covers an oval measuring 86.928 square kilometres (33.56 mi²) in area. The city's last major annexation of outlying territories in 1860 not only gave it its modern form, but created the twenty clockwise-spiraling arrondissements (municipal boroughs). From its 1860 78 km² (30.1 mi²), these limits expanded marginally to 86.9 km² in the 1920s, and in 1929 the Bois de Boulogne and Bois de Vincennes forest parks were officially annexed to the city, bringing its area to its present 105.397 square kilometres (40.69 mi²). The Paris metropolitan area extends far beyond the city limits, forming an irregular oval with arms of urban growth extending along the Seine and Marne rivers from the city's south-east and east, and along the Seine and Oise rivers to the city's north-west and north. Further, beyond the central suburbs, population density drops sharply in the surrounding land; a mix of forest and agriculture dotted with a network of relatively evenly dispersed satellite towns, this commuter belt, when combined with the Paris agglomeration, completes a Paris aire urbaine (metropolitan area) that covers an oval 14,518 km² (5,605.5 mi²) in area, or about 138 times that of Paris itself. Climate Paris has an oceanic climate and is affected by the North Atlantic Drift, so the city has a temperate climate that rarely sees extremely high or low temperatures. The overall climate throughout the year is mild and moderately wet. Summer days are usually warm and pleasant with average temperatures hovering between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F), and a fair amount of sunshine. Each year, however, there are a few days where the temperature rises above 32 °C (90 °F). The Paris region has recently seen temperatures reaching both extremes, with the European heat wave of 2003 and the European cold wave of 2006. Spring and autumn have, on average, mild days and fresh nights but are changing and unstable. Surprisingly warm or cool weather occurs frequently in both seasons. In winter, sunshine is scarce; days are cool, nights cold but generally above freezing with low temperatures around 3 °C (37 °F). Light night frosts are however quite common, but the temperature will dip below −5 °C (23 °F) for only a few days a year. Snow falls every year, but rarely stays on the ground. The city sometimes sees light snow or flurries with or without accumulation. Paris has an average annual precipitation of 652 mm (25.7 in), and experiences light rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year. However the city is known for intermittent abrupt heavy showers. Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Avg high °C (°F) 7 (45) 8 (47) 12 (54) 16 (60) 20 (67) 23 (73) 25 (77) 25 (77) 21 (70) 16 (61) 11 (51) 8 (46) 16 (61) Avg low temperature °C (°F) 3 (37) 3 (37) 5 (42) 7 (45) 11 (52) 14 (57) 16 (60) 16 (60) 13 (55) 10 (50) 6 (42) 3 (38) 8 (47) Source: Meteo France[3] Cityscape Architecture Avenue de l'Opéra and its buildings typical of Haussmann's renovation of Paris "Modern" Paris is the result of a vast mid-nineteenth-century urban remodelling. For centuries it had been a labyrinth of narrow streets and half-timber houses, but beginning in 1852, the Baron Haussmann's vast urbanization leveled entire quarters to make way for wide avenues lined with neo-classical stone buildings of bourgeoise standing; most of this 'new' Paris is the Paris we see today. These Second Empire plans are in many cases still actual, as the city of Paris imposes the "alignement" law of that time (imposed position defining a predetermined street width) on many new constructions. A building's height was also defined according to the width of the street it lines, and Paris' building code has seen few changes since the mid-nineteenth century to allow for higher constructions. For this reason, Paris is mainly a "flat" city. Paris' unchanging borders, strict building codes and lack of developable land have together contributed in creating a phenomenon called muséification (or "museumification") as, at the same time as they strive to preserve Paris' historical past, existing laws make it difficult to create the larger buildings and utilities needed for a growing population within city limits. Many of Paris' institutions and economic infrastructure are already located in, or are planning on moving to, the suburbs. The financial (La Défense) business district, the main food wholesale market (Marché d'Intérêt National de Rungis), major renowned schools (École Polytechnique, École des Hautes Études Commerciales, ESSEC, INSEAD, etc.), world famous research laboratories (in Saclay or Évry), the largest sport stadium (Stade de France), and some ministries (namely the Ministry of Transportation) are located outside of the city of Paris. The National Archives of France are due to relocate to the northern suburbs before 2010. Districts and Historical Centers These are a few of Paris' major districts. The Champs-Élysées to the east from the Arc de Triomphe The busy Rue de Buci in Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois Musée du Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu Champs-Élysées (8th arrondissement, right bank) is a seventeenth century garden-promenade turned avenue connecting the Concorde and Arc de Triomphe. It is one of the many tourist attractions and a major shopping street of Paris. This avenue has been called "la plus belle avenue du monde" ("the most beautiful avenue in the world"). Place de la Concorde (8th arrondissement, right bank) is at the foot of the Champs-Élysées, built as the "Place Louis XV," site of the infamous guillotine. The Egyptian obelisk is Paris's "oldest monument." On the two sides of the Rue Royale, stand two identical stone buildings: the eastern houses the French Naval Ministry, the western the luxurious Hôtel de Crillon. Nearby Place Vendôme. Montmartre (18th arrondissement, right bank) is a historic area on the Butte, home to the Basilica of the Sacré Coeur. Montmartre has always had a history with artists and has many studios and cafés of many great artists in that area. Les Halles (1st arrondissement, right bank) was formerly Paris' central meat and produce market; since the late 1970s it has been a major shopping center around an important metro connection station (the biggest in Europe). The previous Les Halles was destroyed in 1971 and replaced by the Forum des Halles. The central market of Paris, the biggest wholesale food market in the world, was transferred to Marché d'Intérêt National de Rungis, in the southern suburbs. Le Marais (3rd and 4th arrondissements) is a trendy and culturally diverse district on the Right Bank district. Place de la Bastille (4th, 11th and 12th arrondissements, right bank) is one of the most historic districts, being the site of an event that changed the history, not only of Paris, but the whole country of France. Because of its historical value, the square is often used for political demonstrations, including the massive labor protests of March 28, 2006. Quartier Latin (5th and 6th arrondissements, left bank) is a twelfth-century scholastic center formerly stretching between the Left Bank's Place Maubert and the University of Paris (Sorbonne) campus. It is known for its lively atmosphere and many bistros. Various institutions of higher education, such as the École Normale Supérieure, ParisTech and the Jussieu university campus, make it a major educational center in Paris, and contribute to its atmosphere. Montparnasse (14th arrondissement) is a historic Left Bank area famous for artists studios, music halls, and café life. The large Montparnasse - Bienvenüe métro station and the lone Tour Montparnasse skyscraper are located there. La Défense (straddling the communes of Courbevoie, Puteaux, and Nanterre, 2.5 km/1.5 miles west of the City of Paris) is a key suburb of Paris and is one of the largest business centers in the world. Built at the western end of a westward extension of Paris' historical axis from the Champs-Élysées, La Défense consists mainly of business high-rise buildings. Initiated by the French government in 1958, the district hosts 3.5 million m² of offices, making it the largest district in Europe specifically developed for business. The Grande Arche (Great Arch) of la Défense, which houses a part of the headquarters of the French Transport Minister, ends the central Esplanade around which the district is organized. Monuments and landmarks The Arc de Triomphe by day Three of the most famous Parisian landmarks are the twelfth century cathedral Notre Dame de Paris on the Île de la Cité, the nineteenth century Eiffel Tower, and the Napoleonic Arc de Triomphe. The Eiffel Tower was a "temporary" construction by Gustave Eiffel for the 1889 Universal Exposition but the tower was never dismantled and is now an enduring symbol of Paris. It is visible from many parts of the city as are the Tour Montparnasse skyscraper and the Basilica of the Sacré Cœur on the Montmartre hill. The Axe historique (Historical Axis) is a line of monuments, buildings and thoroughfares that run in a roughly straight line from the city centre westwards: the line of monuments begins with the Louvre and continues through the Tuileries Gardens, the Champs-Élysées and the Arc de Triomphe centered in the Place de l'Étoile circus. From the 1960s the line was prolonged even further west to the La Défense business district dominated by a square-shaped triumphal Grande Arche of its own; this district hosts most of the tallest skyscrapers in the Paris urban area. Basilica of the Sacré Coeur Alexandre III Bridge The Invalides museum is the burial place for many great French soldiers, including Napoleon, and the Panthéon church is where many of France's illustrious men and women are buried. The former Conciergerie prison held some prominent ancien régime members before their deaths during the French Revolution. Another symbol of the Revolution are the two Statues of Liberty located on the Île des Cygnes on the Seine and in the Luxembourg Garden. A larger version of the statues was sent as a gift from France to America in 1886 and now stands in New York City's harbor. The Palais Garnier, built in the later Second Empire period, houses the Paris Opera and the Paris Opera Ballet, while the former palace of the Louvre now houses one of the most famous art museums in the world. The Sorbonne is the most famous part of the University of Paris and is based in the centre of the Latin Quarter. Apart from Notre Dame de Paris, there are several other ecclesiastical masterpieces including the Gothic thirteenth century Sainte-Chapelle palace chapel and the Église de la Madeleine. Parks and gardens Jardins du Palais Royal Two of Paris's oldest and famous gardens are the Tuileries Garden, created from the sixteenth century for a palace on the banks of the Seine near the Louvre, and the Left Bank Luxembourg Garden, another formerly private garden belonging to a château built for Marie de' Medici in 1612. The Jardin des Plantes, created by Louis XIII's doctor Guy de La Brosse for the cultivation of medicinal plants, was Paris' first public garden. Parc Monceau A few of Paris' other large gardens are Second Empire creations: the formerly suburban parks of Montsouris, Parc des Buttes Chaumont and Parc Monceau (formerly known as the "folie de Chartres"), were creations of Napoleon III's engineer Jean-Charles Alphand. You will often see Parisians having picnics at the parks, soaking up the warm sunshine, or simply enjoying nature. They are peaceful escapes from the city and are enjoyed by all ages. Another project executed under the orders of Baron Haussmann was the re-sculpting of Paris' western Bois de Boulogne forest-parklands; the Bois de Vincennes, to Paris' opposite eastern end, received a similar treatment in years following. Newer additions to Paris' park landscape are the Parc de la Villette, built by the architect Bernard Tschumi on the location of Paris' former slaughterhouses, and gardens being laid to Paris' periphery along the traces of its former circular Petite Ceinture" railway line. Cemeteries Cemetery of Père Lachaise Paris' cemeteries were on located on its outskirts in 1804. Many of Paris' churches each had their own cemetery, but, by the late eighteenth century, these were creating unpleasant living conditions for nearby residential areas. All parish cemeteries were abolished from 1786, and their contents were taken to abandoned limestone mines outside the southern gates of Paris, today the 14e arrondissement's place Denfert-Rochereau. They are known today as the Paris Catacombes. Although Paris today has once again grown to surround all its former cemeteries, these have become much-appreciated oases of quiet in a thriving city. Many of Paris's historical figures have found rest in Père Lachaise Cemetery. Other notable cemeteries include Cimetière de Montmartre, Cimetière du Montparnasse, Cimetière de Passy and the Catacombs of Paris. New suburban cemeteries were created in the early twentieth century: the largest of these are the Cimetière Parisien de Saint-Ouen, the Cimetière Parisien de Bobigny-Pantin, the Cimetière Parisien d'Ivry and the Cimetière Parisien de Bagneux. Culture Entertainment Opera Paris' largest opera houses are the nineteenth-century Opéra Garnier and modern Opéra Bastille; the former tends towards the more classic ballets and operas, and the latter provides a mixed repertoire of classic and modern. Theatre/Concert halls Theatre traditionally has had a large place in Parisian culture. This still holds true, although today many of its most popular actors today are also stars of French television. A few of Paris' major theaters are Bobino, Théâtre Mogador and the Théâtre de la Gaîté-Montparnasse. Some Parisian theaters also doubled as concert halls. Many of France's greatest musical legends such as Édith Piaf, Maurice Chevalier, Georges Brassens and Charles Aznavour found their fame in Parisian concert halls: legendary examples of these which are still in existence are Bobino, l'Olympia, la Cigale and le Splendid. The Élysées-Montmartre, much reduced from its original size, is a concert hall today. The New Morning is one of few Parisian clubs still holding jazz concerts, but also specializes in 'indie' music. More recently, the Zenith hall in Paris' La Villette quarter and a "parc-omnisports" stadium in Bercy serve as large-scale rock concert halls. Opéra Garnier Dancehalls/Discotheques Guinguettes and Bals-concerts were the backbone of Parisian entertainment before the middle of the twentieth century. Early to mid-nineteenth century examples were the Moulin de la Galette guinguette and the Élysées-Montmartre and Chateau-Rouge dance hall gardens. Popular orchestral fare gave way to the Parisian accordionists of lore whose music moved the Apollo and le Java faubourg du Temple and Belleville dance-hall crowds. Out of the clubs remaining from this era grew the modern discothèque: Le Palace, although closed today, is Paris' most legendary example. Today, much of the clubbing in Paris happens in clubs like Le Queen, L'Etoile, and Le Cab which are highly selective. Popular clubs such as Le Rex, the Batofar (a boat converted into a club) or The Pulp are devoted to electronic music Cinema Like many of the world’s city-dwellers, Parisians movie-goers favor Hollywood-generated film entertainment. French cinema comes a close second, with major directors (réalisateurs) such as Claude Lelouch, Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol and Luc Besson, and the more slapstick/popular genre with director Claude Zidi as an example. European and Asian films are also widely shown and appreciated. A specialty of Paris is its very large network of small movie theaters: during any week the movie fan has a choice of approximately three hundred old and new movies from all over the world. Many of Paris' concert and dance halls were transformed into movie theatres when the media became popular starting in the 1930s. Later most of the largest cinemas were divided into multiple, smaller rooms: Paris' largest cinema today is by far le Grand Rex theater with 2800 seats, while other cinemas all have less than 1000 seats. There is now a trend toward modern multiplexes with more than 10 or 20 screens in the same building. Cafés, Restaurants and Hotels Front view of Les Deux Magots; one of the most famous Parisian cafés, in Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Le Café de Flore, another famous Parisian café, in Saint-Germain-des-Prés. With the opening of the café Régence at the Palais Royal in 1688, and the left bank Café Procope one year later, cafés quickly became an integral part of French culture. The cafés in the gardens of the Palais Royal became quite popular through the eighteenth-century, and can be considered Paris' first "terrace cafés;" these became widespread when sidewalks and boulevards began to appear in the mid-nineteenth century. Cafés are an almost obligatory stop on the way to or from work for many Parisians, and especially during lunchtime. Paris' culinary reputation has its base in the many origins of its inhabitants. With the early-nineteenth-century railways and ensuing industrial revolution came a flood of migration that brought to Paris all the gastronomical diversity of France's many different regions, maintained through 'local specialty' restaurants catering to the tastes of people from each region. "Chez Jenny" is a typical example of a restaurant specializing in the cuisine of the Alsace region, and "Aux Lyonnais" is another with traditional fare originating from the region of Lyons. Immigration from foreign countries meant an even greater culinary diversity, and today, in addition to a great number of North African and Asian establishments, one can find top-quality cuisine from virtually the world over in Paris. Hotels were another result of widespread travel and tourism, especially Paris' late-nineteenth century Expositions Universelles (World's Fairs). Of the most luxurious of these, the Hôtel Ritz appeared in the Place Vendôme from 1898, and the Hôtel de Crillon opened its doors on the north side of the place de la Concorde in 1909. Tourism Paris had always been a destination for traders, students and those on religious pilgrimages, but its 'tourism' began on a large scale only with the appearance of rail travel, when the government began organizing France's rail network in 1848. Paris' first 'mass' attractions, drawing international attention, were the Expositions Universelles, the first of which was held in 1855, and which inspired the construction of many new monuments, such as the Eiffel tower (1889). These Expositions, in addition to the Capital's Second Empire embellishments, did much to make the city into the attraction it is today. The museums and monuments of Paris are its most sought-after attractions, and increasing tourism has motivated both city and State to create new ones. The city's most prized museum, the Louvre, has over 6 million visitors a year. Paris' cathedrals are another main attraction: its Notre-Dame cathedral and Sacré-Coeur basilica annually receive 12 million and eight million visitors respectively. The Eiffel Tower, by far Paris' most famous monument, averages over 6 million visitors per year. Disneyland Resort Paris is a major tourist attraction, not only for visitors to Paris, but for Parisians themselves, with 12.4 million visitors in 2004. The Mona Lisa, one of the Louvre's most famous treasures. The Louvre is one of the largest and most famous museums, housing many works of art, including the Mona Lisa (La Joconde) and the Venus de Milo statue. Works by Pablo Picasso and Rodin are found in Musée Picasso and Musée Rodin, and the artistic community of Montparnasse]] is chronicled at the Musée du Montparnasse. Starkly apparent with its service-pipe exterior, the Centre Georges Pompidou, also known as Beaubourg, houses the Musée National d'Art Moderne. Art and artifacts from the Middle Ages, including the tapestry cycle The Lady and the Unicorn, are kept in Musée Cluny; and art from the Impressionist era is housed in the Musée d'Orsay. Many of Paris' hotel, restaurant and nighttime entertainment businesses have become heavily dependent on tourism, with sometimes detrimental results for Parisian culture. Many of Paris' once-popular local establishments have metamorphosed into a parody of French culture, in a form that caters to the tastes and expectations of foreign tourists. The Moulin Rouge cabaret-dancehall, for example, has become the site of a staged dinner theater spectacle with a dance display that was only one aspect of the cabaret's former atmosphere. All of the establishment's former social or cultural elements, such as its ballrooms and gardens, are gone today. Sports Paris's main sport clubs are the football club Paris Saint-Germain, the basketball team Paris Basket Racing and the rugby union club Stade Français Paris. The 80,000-seat Stade de France was built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and is used for football and rugby union, and is used annually for French rugby team's home matches of the Six Nations Championship and sometimes for big matches for the Stade Français rugby team. Racing Métro 92 Paris (who now play in Rugby Pro D2) is another rugby team, which actually contested the first ever final against Stade Français in 1892. Paris also hosted the 1900 and 1924 Olympic Games, and was venue for the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups. Although the starting point and the route of the famous Tour de France varies each year, the final stage always finishes in Paris and since 1975, the race has finished on the Champs-Elysées. Tennis is another popular sport in Paris and throughout France. The French Open, held every year on the red clay of the Roland Garros National Tennis Center near the Bois de Boulogne, is one of the four Grand Slam events of the world professional tennis tour. The 2006 UEFA Champions League Final between Arsenal and FC Barcelona was played in the Stade de France. Paris hosted the 2007 Rugby World Cup final at Stade de France. Economy The Paris region (Île-de-France) is France's foremost centre of economic activity. With La Défense, the largest purpose-built business district in Europe, it hosts the head offices of almost half of the major French companies, as well as the headquarters of ten of the world's one hudnred largest companies. Paris is also considered to be the capital of the (EMEA) region (Europe, the Middle East and Africa) with more EMEA headquarters than any other European city. Paris also hosts many international organizations such as UNESCO, the OECD, the ICC, and the informal Paris Club. The Paris region has one of the highest GDPs in Europe, making it an engine of the global economy. The Paris Region is France's premier centre of economic activity. In recent decades, the Paris economy has been shifting towards high value-added service industries such as finance, and IT services; and high-tech manufacturing such as electronics, optics, and the aerospace industry. The Paris Region's most intense economic activity is in the central Hauts-de-Seine département]] and suburban La Défense business districts, placing Paris' economic center to the west of the city, in a triangle between the Opéra Garnier, La Défense and the Val de Seine. Paris' administrative borders have little effect on its economic activity: although most workers commute from the suburbs to work in the city, many commute from the city to work in the suburbs. Demography The population of the city of Paris is currently lower than its historical peak of 2.9 million in 1921. The city's population loss mirrors the experience of most other core cities in the developed world that have not expanded their boundaries. The principal factors contributing to the loss of population were a significant decline in household size, and a dramatic movement of residents to the suburbs between 1962 and 1975. The movement to the suburbs was motivated by de-industrialization, high rent, the gentrification of many inner quarters, the transformation of living space into offices, and greater affluence among working families. Paris’s population loss was one of the most severe among international municipalities and the largest for any that had achieved more than 2,000,000 residents. However, the city's population loss came to an end in the twenty-first century, with the population increasing to over 2 million. Density Paris is the most densely populated city of more than 1,000,000 in the Western world. Paris' most sparsely populated quarters are its western and central office and administration arrondissements. The city's population is at its densest in its north and east arrondissements. The Paris Agglomeration The city of Paris is much smaller than its urban area and metropolitan area. The city's urban area (agglomeration) fills a ring of Paris' three neighboring départements - also known as petite couronne ("small ring") - and extends into an "outer ring" of four grande couronne départements beyond. These eight départements together complete the Île-de-France région. The Paris agglomeration or urban area (unité urbaine) covers an area about 26 times larger than the city of Paris. Beyond this, the couronne peri-urbaine commuter belt region reaches well beyond the limits of the Île-de-France région, and combined with the Paris agglomeration, completes a metropolitan area (aire urbaine) covering an area about 138 times that of Paris itself. View over the center of Paris, with the high-rises of the 13th arrondissement at right. The Paris agglomeration has shown a steady rate of growth since the end of the late sixteenth-century French Wars of Religion, except for brief setbacks during the French Revolution and World War II. Suburban development has accelerated in recent years. Immigration French censuses, by law, ask no questions regarding ethnicity or religion, but do gather information concerning country of birth. From this it is still possible to determine that the Paris metropolitan area is one of the most multi-cultural in Europe: Over 20 percent were born outside France. The first wave of international migration to Paris started as early as 1820 with the arrival of German peasants fleeing the agricultural crisis in Germany. Several waves of immigration followed continuously until today: Italians and central European Jews during the nineteenth century; Russians after the revolution of 1917; colonial citizens during World War I and later; Poles between the two world wars; Spaniards, Portuguese and North Africans from the 1950s to the 1970s; North African Jews after the independence of those countries; and most recently, Africans and Asians in search of economic opportunity. The majority of these today are naturalized French without any distinction, in the name of the French Republic principle of equality among its citizens. Paris skyline, looking south from Montmartre. Paris skyline, looking south from Montmartre. Administration Capital of France Paris is the capital of France, and therefore is the seat of France's national government. For the executive, the two chief officers each have their own official residences, which also serve as their offices. President of the Republic resides at the Elysée Palace in the VIIIe arrondissement, while the Prime Minister's seat is at the Hôtel Matignon in the VIIe arrondissement. Government ministries are located in various parts of the city - many are located in the VIIe, near the Matignon. The two houses of the French Parliament are also located on the Left Bank. The upper house, the Senate, meets in the Palais du Luxembourg in the VIe arrondissement, while the more important lower house, the Assemblée Nationale, meets in the Palais Bourbon in the VIIe. The President of the Senate, the second highest public official in France after the President of the Republic, resides in the "Petit Luxembourg," a smaller palace annex to the Palais du Luxembourg. France's highest courts are located in Paris. The Court of Cassation, the highest court in the judicial order, which tries most criminal and civil cases, is located in the Palais de Justice on the Ile de la Cité, while the Conseil d'État, which provides legal advice to the executive and acts as the highest court in the administrative order, judging litigation against public bodies, is located in the Palais Royal in the Ier. The Constitutional Council, an advisory body which is the ultimate authority on the constitutionality of laws and government decrees, also meets in the Palais Royal. City Government The arrondissements of Paris Paris has been a commune (municipality) since 1834 (and also briefly between 1790 and 1795). At the 1790 division (during the French Revolution) of France into communes, and again in 1834, Paris was a city only half its modern size, but in 1860 it annexed bordering communes, some entirely, to create the new administrative map of the twenty municipal arrondissements which are still active today. These municipal subdivisions describe a clockwise spiral outward from its most central first arrondissement. In 1790, Paris became the préfecture (seat) of the Seine département,, which covered much of the Paris region. In 1968, it was split into four smaller ones: the city of Paris became a distinct département of its own, retaining the Seine's departmental number of 75 (originating from the Seine département's position in France's alphabetical list), while three new départements of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne were created and given the numbers 92, 93 and 94 respectively. The result of this division is that today Paris's limits as a département are exactly those of its limits as a commune, a situation unique in France. Municipal Offices Each of Paris's 20 arrondissements has a directly-elected council (conseil d'arrondissement), which in turn elects an arrondissement mayor. A selection of members from each arrondissement council form the Council of Paris (conseil de Paris), which in turn elects the mayor of Paris. The sun setting over the Seine. In medieval times Paris was governed by a merchant-elected municipality whose head was the provost of the merchants: in addition to regulating city commerce, the provost of the merchants was responsible for some civic duties such as the guarding of city walls and the cleanliness of city streets. The creation of the provost of Paris in the thirteenth century diminished the merchant Provost's responsibilities and powers considerably: a direct representative of the king, in a role resembling somewhat the préfet of later years, the Provost of Paris oversaw the application and execution of law and order in the city and its surrounding prévôté (county). Many functions from both provost offices were transferred to the office of the crown-appointed lieutenant general of police upon its creation in 1667. Paris' last Prévôt des marchands was assassinated the afternoon of July 14, 1789, during the French Revolution Storming of the Bastille. Paris became an official "commune" with the creation of the administrative division on December 14 of the same year, and its provisional "Paris commune" revolutionary municipality was replaced with the city's first municipal constitution and government from October 9, 1790.[4] Through the turmoil of the 1794 Thermidorian Reaction, it became apparent that revolutionary Paris's political independence was a threat to any governing power: the office of mayor was abolished the same year, and its municipal council one year later. Although the municipal council was recreated in 1834, Paris spent most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, along with the larger Seine département of which it was a center, under the direct control of the State-appointed préfet of the Seine, in charge of general affairs there; the state-appointed Prefect of Police was in charge of police in the same jurisdiction. Paris, save for a few brief occasions, had no mayor until 1977, and the Paris Prefecture of Police is still under state control today. Despite its double existence as commune and département, Paris has a unique council governing both; the Council of Paris, presided over by the mayor of Paris, meets either as a municipal council (conseil municipal) or as a departmental council (conseil général) depending on the issue to be debated. Paris' modern administrative organization still retains some traces of the former Seine département jurisdiction. The Prefecture of Police (also directing Paris' fire brigades), for example, has still a jurisdiction extending to Paris' petite couronne of bordering three départements for some operations such as fire protection or rescue operations, and is still directed by France's national government. Paris has no municipal police force, although it does have its own brigade of traffic wardens. The eight départements of the Île-de-France région Capital of the Île-de-France région As part of a 1961 nation-wide administrative effort to consolidate regional economies, Paris as a département became the capital of the new région of the District of Paris, renamed the Île-de-France région in 1976. It encompasses the Paris département and its seven closest départements. Its regional council members, since 1986, have been chosen by direct elections. The prefect of the Paris département (who served as the prefect of the Seine département before 1968) is also prefect of the Île-de-France région, although the office lost much of its power following the creation of the office of mayor of Paris in 1977. Intercommunality Few of the above changes have taken into account Paris's existence as an agglomeration. Unlike in most of France's major urban areas such as Lille and Lyon, there is no intercommunal entity in the Paris urban area, no intercommunal council treating the problems of the region's dense urban core as a whole; Paris's alienation of its suburbs is indeed a problem today, and considered by many to be the main causes of civil unrest such as suburban riots in 2005. A direct result of these unfortunate events were propositions for a more efficient metropolitan structure to cover the city of Paris and some of the suburbs, ranging from a socialist idea of a loose "metropolitan conference" (conférence métropolitaine) to the right-wing idea of a more integrated Grand Paris ("Greater Paris"). Education Early in the ninth century, Emperor Charlemagne mandated all churches to give lessons in reading, writing and basic arithmetic to their parishes, and cathedrals a higher education in the finer arts of language, physics, music and theology. It was then that Paris, already one of France's major cathedral towns, began its rise to fame as a scholastic centre. By the early thirteenth century the île de la Cité Notre-Dame cathedral school had many famous teachers, and the controversial teachings of some of these was behind the creation of a separate Left-Bank Sainte-Genevieve University that would be the centre of Paris' scholastic Latin quarter best represented by the Sorbonne university. Twelve centuries later, education in Paris and the Paris region (Île-de-France région) employs approximately 330,000 persons, 170,000 of whom are teachers and professors teaching approximately 2.9 million children and students in around 9000 primary, secondary, and higher education schools and institutions. Universities Historical article: University of Paris Paris Notre-Dame Cathedral was the first center of higher education before the creation of the University of Paris. The universitas, a corporation status granting teachers (and their students) the right to rule themselves independently from crown law and taxes, was chartered by King Philip Augustus in 1200. Many classes then were held in open air. Non-Parisian students and teachers would stay in hostels, or "colleges," created for the boursiers coming from afar. Already famous by the thirteenth century, the University of Paris had students from all of Europe. Paris's Rive Gauche scholastic center, or "Latin Quarter" as classes were taught in Latin then, would eventually regroup around the college created by Robert de Sorbon from 1257, the Collège de Sorbonne. The University of Paris in the nineteenth century had six faculties: law, science, medicine, pharmaceutical studies, literature and theology. The 1968 student riots in Paris, in an effort to disperse the centralised student body, resulted in a near total reform of the University of Paris. The following year, the formerly unique University of Paris was split between 13 autonomous universities ("Paris I" to "Paris XIII") located throughout the City of Paris and its suburbs. Each of these universities inherited only some of the departments of the old University of Paris, and are not generalist universities. Paris I, II, V and X, inherited the Law School; Paris V inherited the School of Medicine as well; Paris VI and VII inherited the scientific departments; etc. In 1991, four more universities were created in the suburbs of Paris, reaching a total of 17 public universities for the Paris (Île-de-France) région. These new universities were given names (based on the name of the suburb in which they are located) and not numbers like the previous 13: University of Cergy-Pontoise, University of Évry-Val d'Essonne, University of Marne-la-Vallée and University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines. In Paris there is also the english-speaking Westminster Centre for International Studies, department of London's University of Westminster, as well as the The American University of Paris, a private higher education institution; and the The American Business School of Paris. Grandes écoles The Paris region hosts France's highest concentration of grandes écoles, or prestigious centers of higher specialized education outside the public university structure. Note that (Prestigious public universities are usually referred to as grands établissements.) Most of the grandes écoles were relocated to the suburbs of Paris in the 1960s and 1970s, in new campuses much larger than the old campuses within the crowded City of Paris, though the École Normale Supérieure has remained on rue d'Ulm in the Ve arrondissement. The Paris area has a high number of engineering schools, led by the Paris Institute of Technology (ParisTech) which is composed of several colleges such as the École Polytechnique, École des Mines, Télécom Paris, and École des Ponts et Chaussées. Business schools are also many, including world-famous HEC, ESSEC, INSEAD, and ESCP-EAP European School of Management. Although Paris' former elite administrative school ENA was relocated to Strasbourg, the famous political science school Sciences-Po is still located in Paris' Left bank VIIe arrondissement. Classes Préparatoires Also called classes prépas or simply prépas, these "prep" schools are a two or three year preparation leading to the grandes écoles (see above). Many of the best prépas are located in Paris. Key examples include Lycée privé Sainte-Geneviève, Lycée Louis-le-Grand, Lycée Henri IV, Lycée Hoche and Lycée Saint-Louis. Student selection is based on the school grades and the teacher remarks. Prépas attract most of the best students in France and are known to be very demanding in terms of work load and psychological stress. Infrastructure Inauguration of the T3 tramway line December, 2006. Transport Paris's role as a centre of international trade and tourism has brought its transportation system many embellishments over the past centuries, and its development is still progressing at a rapid pace today. Only in the past few decades Paris has become the center of an autoroute system, high-speed train network and, through its two major airports, a hub of international air travel. The public transit networks of the Paris region are coordinated by the Syndicat des transports d'Île-de-France (STIF),[5] formerly Syndicat des transports parisiens (STP). Members of the syndicate include the RATP, which operates the Parisian and some suburban buses, the Métro, and sections of the RER; the SNCF, which operates the suburban rail lines and the other sections of the RER ; and other private operators managing some suburban bus lines. The Métro is one of Paris' most important methods of transportation. The system comprises 16 lines, identified by numbers from 1 to 14, with two minor lines, 3bis and 7bis, numbered thus because they used to be branches of their respective original lines and only later became independent. In October 1998, the new line 14 was inaugurated after a 70-year hiatus in inaugurating fully new métro lines. There are two tangential tramway lines in the suburbs: Line T1 runs from Saint-Denis to Noisy-le-Sec, line T2 runs from La Défense to Issy. A third line, in the city proper, T-3, between Pont du Garigliano and Porte d'Ivry, along the southern inner orbital road opened for use on December 15, 2006. Paris is served by two principal airports: Orly Airport, which is south of Paris, and the Charles de Gaulle International Airport in nearby Roissy-en-France, one of the busiest in Europe. A third and much smaller airport, at the town of Beauvais, 70 km (45 mi) to the north of the city, is used by charter and low-cost airlines. Le Bourget airport nowadays only hosts business jets, air trade shows and the aerospace museum. Paris is a central hub of the national rail network of high-speed (TGV) and normal (Corail) trains. Six major railway stations, Gare du Nord, Gare Montparnasse, Gare de l'Est, Gare de Lyon, Gare d'Austerlitz, and Gare Saint-Lazare connect this train network to the world famous and highly efficient Métro network, with 380 stations connected by 221.6km of rails. Because of the short distance between stations on the Métro network, lines were too slow to be extended further in the suburbs as is the case in most other cities. An additional express network, known as the RER, has been created since the 1960s to connect more distant parts of the conurbation. The city is also the hub of France's motorway network, and is surrounded by three orbital freeways: the Périphérique which follows the approximate path of nineteenth-century fortifications around Paris, the A86 autoroute motorway in the inner suburbs, and finally the Francilienne motorway, also known as the A104 (north) and N104 (south) (and N184), in the outer suburbs. Paris has an extensive road network with over 2000 kilometres of major roads and highways. By road Brussels can be reached in three hours, Frankfurt in six hours, and Barcelona in 12 hours. Water and sanitation Canal Saint-Martin Paris in its early history drew its water from the Seine and Bièvre rivers. Later forms of irrigation were: a first-century Roman aqueduct from southerly Wissous (later left to ruin); sources from the Right bank hills from the late eleventh century; from the fifteenth century, an aqueduct built roughly along the path of the first; finally, in 1809, the canal de l'Ourcq began providing Paris with water from less polluted rivers away from the Capital. Paris would received its first constant and plentiful source of drinkable water in 1857, when, under Napoleon III's Préfet Haussmann, the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts to bring water from distant sources to reservoirs built in the highest points of the Capital. The new sources became Paris' principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were dedicated to the cleaning of Paris' streets. This system is still a major part of Paris' modern water supply network. Paris has over 2,400 km of underground passageways dedicated to the evacuation of Paris' liquid wastes. Most of these even today date from the late nineteenth century, a result of the combined plans of the Préfet Baron Haussmann and the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand to improve the then very unsanitary conditions in the Capital. Maintained by a round-the-clock service since their construction, only a small percentage of Paris' sewer réseau has needed complete renovation. The entire Paris network of sewers and collectors has been managed since the late twentieth century by a computerized network system, known under the acronym "G.A.AS.PAR," that controls all of Paris' water distribution, even the flow of the river Seine through the capital. International Relations The following places are sister cities to Paris: Twin city: Flag of Italy Rome, Italy, 1956 is Paris' only sister city (Seule Paris est digne de Rome; seule Rome est digne de Paris / "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; Only Rome is worthy of Paris"). Partner cities Flag of Turkey Akhisar, Turkey,1988 Flag of Algeria Algiers, Algeria, 2003 Flag of Jordan Amman, Jordan, 1987 Flag of Greece Athens, Greece, 2000 Flag of People's Republic of China Beijing, China, 1997 Flag of Lebanon Beirut, Lebanon, 1992 Flag of Germany Berlin, Germany, 1987 Flag of Egypt Cairo, Egypt, 1985 Flag of United States Chicago, United States, 1996 Flag of Switzerland Geneva, Switzerland, 2002 Flag of Indonesia Jakarta, Indonesia, 1995 Flag of Japan Kyoto, Japan, 1958 Flag of Portugal Lisbon, Portugal, 1998 Flag of United Kingdom London, United Kingdom, 2001 Flag of Spain Madrid, Spain, 2000 Flag of Mexico Mexico City, Mexico, 1999 Flag of Canada Montreal, Canada, 1993 Flag of Russia Moscow, Russia, 1992 Flag of Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic, 1997 Flag of Pakistan Islamabad, Pakistan Flag of Canada Quebec City, Canada, 1996 Flag of Saudi Arabia Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1997 Flag of Russia Saint Petersburg, Russia, 1997 Flag of Yemen Sanaa, Yemen, 1987 Flag of Brazil São Paulo, Brazil, 2004 Flag of United States San Francisco, United States, 1996 Flag of Chile Santiago, Chile, 1997 Flag of South Korea Seoul, South Korea, 1991 Flag of Bulgaria Sofia, Bulgaria, 1998 Flag of Australia Sydney, Australia, 1998 Flag of Georgia (country) Tbilisi, Georgia, 1997 Flag of Japan Tokyo, Japan, 1982 Flag of Poland Warsaw, Poland, 1999 Flag of United States Washington, D.C., United States, 2000 Flag of Armenia Yerevan, Armenia, 1998 Notes ↑ INSEE, Populations légales 2018 Retrieved March 26, 2021. ↑ Jump up to:2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 (English) Paris: The first inhabitants Ministère de la Culture. Retrieved March 26, 2021. ↑ Climatological Information for Paris, France Meteo France. Retrieved March 26, 2021. ↑ Henry E. Bourne, Improvising a Government in Paris in July 1789 The American Historical Review 10(2) (January 1905): 280-308. ↑ (French) "Le web des voyageurs franciliens". (STIF) Syndicat des Transports d'Ile-de-France. Retrieved March 26, 2021. ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees Dunlop, Fiona. Fodor's exploring Paris. Fodor's exploring guides. New York: Fodor's Travel Publications, 2005. ISBN 1400015359. (French) Favier, Jean. Paris. Paris: Fayard, 1997. ISBN 2213598746. Higonnet, Patrice L. R. Paris: capital of the world. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 0674008871. (French) Hillairet, Jacques. 2005. Connaissance du Vieux Paris. Rivages. ISBN 2869306482. Horne, Alistair. Seven ages of Paris..New York: A.A. Knopf, 2002. ISBN 0679454810. Hussey, Andrew. Paris: the secret history. New York, NY: Bloomsbury USA, 2007. ISBN 1596913231. Jones, Colin. Paris: biography of a city. New York: Viking, 2005. ISBN 0670033936. Spang, Rebecca L. The invention of the restaurant: Paris and modern gastronomic culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 2000. ISBN 0674000641. Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe and Place Charles de Gaulle François Rude: Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 (La Marseillaise) Arc de Triomphe Paris: Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe, Paris German occupation of Paris Franco-German War For Students Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe summary Quizzes (Left) Eiffel Tower; (right) Washington Monument. Combo using assets (Eiffel Tower) 245552 and (Washington Monument) 245554. Which Is Taller? Quiz Related Questions     What is the landscape of Paris?     What is the weather like in Paris? Read Next Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, France. 26 Historic Buildings to Visit the Next Time You’re in Paris Sydney Opera House, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia. Why New York Is Called "The Big Apple" and How 8 Other Famous Cities Got Their Nicknames Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, France. 26 Historic Buildings to Visit the Next Time You’re in Paris Battle of Fleurus (June 16, 1794), the most significant battle in the First Coalition phase of the French Revolutionary Wars; by Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse, 19th century. What Led to France’s Reign of Terror? Extension of the Louvre, Paris, designed in the Second Empire style by L.-T.-J. Visconti and Hector Lefuel, 1852-57 10 Places in (and around) Paris Discover Moonrise over Tucson, Arizona Why Doesn’t Arizona Observe Daylight Saving Time? Election - Button that says Vote. Badge pin stars and stripes politics campaign Why Are U.S. Elections Held on Tuesdays? Macro of sheet music 10 Classical Music Composers to Know Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) standing on rock, side view, Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya The Fastest Animals on Earth Big Sur. Pacific Ocean. Waves. Beach. Point Sur on the Pacific coastline near Big Sur, California. What Is Known (and Not Known) About the Bermuda Triangle Domestic chickens (Gallus) on a farm. Rooster hen poultry bird fowl How Mike the Chicken Survived Without a Head New York NY/ USA- November 23, 2018 Hordes of shoppers throng the Macy's Herald Square flagship store in New York looking for bargains on the day after Thanksgiving, Black Friday. Why Is It Called Black Friday? Home Geography & Travel Tourist Attractions Geography & Travel Arc de Triomphe arch, Paris, France Also known as: Arc de Triomphe de l’Étoile Written by Fact-checked by Last Updated: Sep 27, 2023 • Article History Category: Geography & Travel in full: Arc de Triomphe de l’Étoile Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe, massive triumphal arch in Paris, France, one of the world’s best-known commemorative monuments. The Arc de Triomphe is an iconic symbol of French national identity and took 30 years to build. The Tour de France bicycle race ends near it each year, and the annual military parade marking July 14—known both as French National Day and Bastille Day—begins its journey at the arch. It stands at the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle (formerly called the Place de l’Étoile), the western terminus of the avenue des Champs-Élysées; just over 1.2 miles (2 km) away, at the eastern terminus, is the Place de la Concorde. Napoleon I commissioned the triumphal arch in 1806—after his great victory at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805)—to celebrate the military achievements of the French armies. The arch, designed by Jean-François-Thérèse Chalgrin, is 164 feet (50 metres) high and 148 feet (45 metres) wide. It sits in a circular plaza from which 12 grand avenues radiate, forming a star (étoile), which is why it is also called Arch of Triumph of the Star. (Left) Eiffel Tower; (right) Washington Monument. Combo using assets (Eiffel Tower) 245552 and (Washington Monument) 245554. Britannica Quiz Which Is Taller? Quiz Arc de Triomphe and Place Charles de Gaulle Arc de Triomphe and Place Charles de Gaulle Construction of the arch began in 1806, on August 15, Napoleon’s birthday. Little more than the foundation had been completed by the time of his marriage to the Austrian archduchess Marie-Louise in 1810, so, in honour of her ceremonial entry into Paris, a full-scale depiction of the completed design, created from wood and painted canvas, was erected at the site. That gave Chalgrin the opportunity to see his design in place on the site, and he made some small amendments to it. At the time of his death in 1811, only a small portion of the structure had been completed, and work slowed further after Napoleon’s abdication as emperor and the Bourbon Restoration (1814). Thus, little more was accomplished until the resumption of work was ordered in 1823 by King Louis XVIII, who was motivated by the success of the French invasion of Spain that restored King Ferdinand VII’s power as absolute monarch. The basic structure of the monument was finished by 1831; work was completed in 1836, during the reign of King Louis-Philippe, who opened it officially on July 29. François Rude: Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 (La Marseillaise) François Rude: Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 (La Marseillaise) Chalgrin’s design is Neoclassical, inspired in part by the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum. Decorative high-relief sculptures celebrating military victories of the Revolution and the First Empire were executed on the facades of the arch’s four pedestals by François Rude, Jean-Pierre Cortot, and Antoine Etex. The most famous of those sculptures is Rude’s group Departure of the Volunteers of 1792 (popularly called La Marseillaise). Other surfaces are decorated with the names of hundreds of generals and battles. A stairway of 284 steps reaches from the ground level to the top of the monument; an elevator goes partway up the monument, but from there the top, where an observation deck is located, can only be reached by climbing the remaining steps. One level below the observation deck is a small museum with interactive exhibits on the history of the arch. Beneath the arch lies France’s Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, added in 1921. A flame of remembrance there, first lit in 1923, is rekindled each evening. An annual ceremony marking the anniversary of the 1918 armistice that ended World War I is held at the arch. The Arc de Triomphe continues to serve as an iconic symbol of France, to the country itself and to the world. The coffins of many French luminaries, such as Victor Hugo and Ferdinand Foch, have lain in state there before their interment elsewhere. In addition, victory parades have frequently marched past the arch, both those of invading powers (such as Germany, in 1871 and 1940) and of France and its allies (in 1918, 1944 upon the liberation of Paris during World War II, and 1945 after the end of the war in Europe). Lorraine Murray Sponsored By American Express The Amex Platinum card, it’s for us. It's for us. Learn more triumphal arch Table of Contents Introduction References & Edit History Related Topics Images Arc de Triomphe and Place Charles de Gaulle Arch of Constantine Nicola Salvi: Trevi Fountain, Rome Nash, John: Marble Arch New Delhi: All India War Memorial arch Inscribed attic surmounting the main cornice of the Arch of Titus, Rome, ad 81 Arch of Titus Roman ruins of the main street and the west gate, or triumphal arch, Thamugadi, Alg. Brussels: World War I The Arch of Septimius Severus, a triumphal arch erected ad 203–205 in Rome. Read Next Colosseum, Rome, Italy. (Flavian Amphitheatre, arena) 19 Historic Buildings to Visit in Rome President Ronald Reagan deliving his famous speech that challenged the Soviet Union to tear down the Berlin Wall, at the Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin, June 12, 1987. “Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!”: Reagan’s Berlin Speech Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, France. 26 Historic Buildings to Visit the Next Time You’re in Paris Discover Group of children and their parents playing trick or treat on Halloween. Why Do We Celebrate Halloween? Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) standing on rock, side view, Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya The Fastest Animals on Earth Big Sur. Pacific Ocean. Waves. Beach. Point Sur on the Pacific coastline near Big Sur, California. What Is Known (and Not Known) About the Bermuda Triangle Macro of sheet music 10 Classical Music Composers to Know Wasp spider. Argiope bruennichi. Orb-weaver spider. Spiders. Arachnid. Cobweb. Spider web. Spider's web. Spider silk. Black and yellow striped wasp spider spinning a web. Do We Really Swallow Spiders in Our Sleep? Dandelion with seeds blowing in the wind. Seed dispersion. Falling Far from the Tree: 7 Brilliant Ways Seeds and Fruits Are Dispersed Domestic chickens (Gallus) on a farm. Rooster hen poultry bird fowl How Mike the Chicken Survived Without a Head Home Technology Engineering Civil Engineering Science & Tech triumphal arch Written and fact-checked by Last Updated: Article History Arc de Triomphe and Place Charles de Gaulle Arc de Triomphe and Place Charles de Gaulle See all media Category: Science & Tech Key People:     Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine Jean-François-Thérèse Chalgrin  Related Topics:     arch building  triumphal arch, a monumental structure pierced by at least one arched passageway and erected to honour an important person or to commemorate a significant event. It was sometimes architecturally isolated but usually was built to span either a street or a roadway, preferably one used for triumphal processions. Although associated with ancient Roman architecture, the origins and significance of the triumphal arch are still not fully understood. It was a separate structure, having no connection with city gates or city walls, and should not be confused with the Porta Triumphalis, through which the victorious Roman army had to pass before entering the sacred city territory (pomerium) of Rome. Its basic form consisted of two piers connected by an arch and crowned by a superstructure, or attica, that served as a base for statues and bore commemorative inscriptions. In early arches the attic statuary usually represented the victor in his triumphal chariot; in later ones only the emperor was depicted. The function of the arch, therefore, seems to have been that of an honorary monument of unusual importance; it was so interpreted by the only ancient author who discussed it, Pliny the Elder (ad 23–79). Few triumphal arches are known from the time of the republic. In Rome three were erected: the first, in 196 bc, by Lucius Stertinius; the second, in 190 bc, by Scipio Africanus the Elder on the Capitoline Hill; and the third, in 121 bc, the first in the Forum area, by Quintus Fabius Allobrogicus. All carried statuary, but little is known of their architectural form, and there are no remains. Most of the triumphal arches were built during the empire period (27 bc to ad 476). Early in the 4th century ad, for example, there were 36 such monuments in Rome. The imperial-style structure was sometimes expanded to three arches with the central arch reaching a greater height than the two side arches. The triumphal arch of the empire was articulated by a facade of marble columns; ornamental cornices were added to the piers and attics, and the archway and sides were adorned with relief sculpture depicting the emperor’s victories and achievements. Arch of Constantine Arch of Constantine In Rome three triumphal arches have survived: the Arch of Titus (ad 81), with relief sculpture of his triumph over Jerusalem; the Arch of Septimius Severus (203–205), commemorating his victory over the Parthians; and the Arch of Constantine (312), a composite product, decorated with reused material from the times of Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian. Outside Rome, notable ancient examples include the arches of Augustus in Susa, Aosta, Rimini, and Pola; the arches of Trajan in Ancona and Benevento; the arch of Marcus Aurelius in Tripoli; and that of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, in North Africa. Nicola Salvi: Trevi Fountain, Rome Nicola Salvi: Trevi Fountain, Rome Its forms have reappeared, imaginatively transposed, in the facades and interiors of churches, such as that of San Andrea in Mantua, Italy (begun 1472), by Leon Battista Alberti, and even in fountain design, as at the Trevi Fountain in Rome (begun 1732), by Niccolò Salvi. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Nash, John: Marble Arch Nash, John: Marble Arch New Delhi: All India War Memorial arch New Delhi: All India War Memorial arch Among the triumphal arches built since the Renaissance, noteworthy examples include the triumphal arch of Alfonso I (1453–70) in Naples; the 17th-century Porte Saint-Denis and Porte Saint-Martin and Jean Chalgrin’s Arc de Triomphe (1836), all in Paris; London’s Marble Arch, by John Nash, and the Hyde Park Corner Arch, both designed in 1828; and Stanford White’s Washington Square Arch (completed 1895) in New York City. This article was most recently revised and updated by Robert Lewis. Champs-Élysées Table of Contents Introduction References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics Images Arc de Triomphe Paris: Tuileries and Place Louis XV Champs-Élysées, Paris, France Arc de Triomphe, Paris Related Questions     What is the landscape of Paris?     What is the weather like in Paris? Read Next Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, France. 26 Historic Buildings to Visit the Next Time You’re in Paris High angle view of a woman crossing a road. City streets, asphalt, bike lanes, car traffic, pedestrians Why Are Roads Made of Asphalt? Sydney Opera House, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia. Why New York Is Called "The Big Apple" and How 8 Other Famous Cities Got Their Nicknames Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, France. 26 Historic Buildings to Visit the Next Time You’re in Paris Battle of Fleurus (June 16, 1794), the most significant battle in the First Coalition phase of the French Revolutionary Wars; by Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse, 19th century. What Led to France’s Reign of Terror? Discover 1 July 2002: The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) satellite reveals a massive solar eruption more than 30 times the Earth's diameter. The eruption formed when a loop of a magnetic field over the surface of the Sun trapped hot gas. 6 Questions About the Sun Answered Day of the Dead. skeleton to celebrate Day of the Dead aka Dia de los Muertos holiday in Mexico. La Calavera Catrina. Roman Catholicism moved holiday to coincide with All Saints Day and All Souls Day (November 1 and 2). Feliz Día de los Muertos Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) standing on rock, side view, Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya The Fastest Animals on Earth Domestic chickens (Gallus) on a farm. Rooster hen poultry bird fowl How Mike the Chicken Survived Without a Head Illustration by the CDC, reveals ultrastructural morphology exhibited by coronaviruses. Note the spikes on the outer surface of the virus, which impart the look of a corona surrounding the virion, when viewed electron microscopically. A novel coronavirus, The Top COVID-19 Vaccine Myths Spreading Online Big Sur. Pacific Ocean. Waves. Beach. Point Sur on the Pacific coastline near Big Sur, California. What Is Known (and Not Known) About the Bermuda Triangle Battle of the Alamo from "Texas: An Epitome of Texas History from the Filibustering and Revolutionary Eras to the Independence of the Republic, 1897. Texas Revolution, Texas revolt, Texas independence, Texas history. 6 Wars of Independence Home Geography & Travel Highways & Trails Geography & Travel Champs-Élysées thoroughfare, Paris, France Also known as: Avenue des Champs-Élysées Written and fact-checked by Last Updated: Oct 2, 2023 • Article History Category: Geography & Travel officially: Avenue des Champs-Élysées (French: “Avenue of the Elysian Fields”) Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe Champs-Élysées, broad avenue in Paris, one of the world’s most famous, which stretches 1.17 miles (1.88 km) from the Arc de Triomphe to the Place de la Concorde. It is divided into two parts by the Rond-Point (“roundabout”) des Champs-Élysées. The lower part, toward the Place de la Concorde (and beyond, the Tuileries Gardens), is surrounded by gardens, museums, theatres, and a few restaurants. The upper part, toward the Arc de Triomphe, was traditionally the site of luxury shops and hotels, restaurants and pavement cafés, theatres, banks, and offices. Progressively, however, its character has changed, although its tourist appeal remains strong. Airline offices, fast-food restaurants, car showrooms, and cinemas, as well as American-style shopping arcades, have become increasingly dominant. Paris: Tuileries and Place Louis XV Paris: Tuileries and Place Louis XV Champs-Élysées, Paris, France Champs-Élysées, Paris, France When first designed in the 17th century, the Champs-Élysées consisted of fields, an open area then on the outskirts of Paris, containing the Cours de la Reine (“Queen’s Drive”), an approach road running along the Seine River to the Tuileries Palace. Later in the same century, André Le Nôtre landscaped the broad, shady avenue and extended it to the crest of the hill on which the Arc de Triomphe now stands. In the 18th century the whole came to be called the Champs-Élysées. The Arc de Triomphe was inaugurated in 1836, and by the 1860s, when Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann was grandly redrawing the boulevards of Paris, the Champs-Élysées had become a prestigious thoroughfare of palaces, hotels, and restaurants. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica This article was most recently revised and updated by Heather Campbell. IHG Hotels & Resorts Sponsored By IHG Hotels & Resorts Want hotel discounts and IHG One Rewards Elite sta Want hotel discounts and IHG One Rewards Elite status? Join for these and more big travel perks for your small business. Learn more arch Table of Contents Introduction References & Edit History Related Topics Images parts of a circular arch arch bridge arches, types of For Students arch summary Discover The fresco St. Paul the Apostle in Herz Jesus church by Friedrich Stummel and Karl Wenzel from end of 19 and the beginning of the 20 century St. Paul’s Contributions to the New Testament Wasp spider. Argiope bruennichi. Orb-weaver spider. Spiders. Arachnid. Cobweb. Spider web. Spider's web. Spider silk. Black and yellow striped wasp spider spinning a web. Do We Really Swallow Spiders in Our Sleep? Battle of the Alamo from "Texas: An Epitome of Texas History from the Filibustering and Revolutionary Eras to the Independence of the Republic, 1897. Texas Revolution, Texas revolt, Texas independence, Texas history. 6 Wars of Independence Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) standing on rock, side view, Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya The Fastest Animals on Earth 1 July 2002: The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) satellite reveals a massive solar eruption more than 30 times the Earth's diameter. The eruption formed when a loop of a magnetic field over the surface of the Sun trapped hot gas. 6 Questions About the Sun Answered Day of the Dead. skeleton to celebrate Day of the Dead aka Dia de los Muertos holiday in Mexico. La Calavera Catrina. Roman Catholicism moved holiday to coincide with All Saints Day and All Souls Day (November 1 and 2). Feliz Día de los Muertos Several red apples with cut apple in the foreground. Can Apple Seeds Kill You? Home Technology Engineering Civil Engineering Science & Tech arch architecture Written and fact-checked by Last Updated: Article History parts of a circular arch parts of a circular arch See all media Category: Science & Tech Key People:     Sir Edwin Lutyens Jean Perronet Robert Maillart  Related Topics:     triumphal arch tympanum spandrel falsework segmental arch  arch, in architecture and civil engineering, a curved member that is used to span an opening and to support loads from above. The arch formed the basis for the evolution of the vault. Arch construction depends essentially on the wedge. If a series of wedge-shaped blocks—i.e., ones in which the upper edge is wider than the lower edge—are set flank to flank in the manner shown in the figure, the result is an arch. These blocks are called voussoirs. Each voussoir must be precisely cut so that it presses firmly against the surface of neighbouring blocks and conducts loads uniformly. The central voussoir is called the keystone. The point from which the arch rises from its vertical supports is known as the spring, or springing line. During construction of an arch, the voussoirs require support from below until the keystone has been set in place; this support usually takes the form of temporary wooden centring. The curve in an arch may be semicircular, segmental (consisting of less than one-half of a circle), or pointed (two intersecting arcs of a circle); noncircular curves can also be used successfully. Foster and Partners: the Great Court More From Britannica architecture: Arch In masonry construction, arches have several great advantages over horizontal beams, or lintels. They can span much wider openings because they can be made from small, easily carried blocks of brick or stone, as opposed to a massive, monolithic stone lintel. An arch can also carry a much greater load than a horizontal beam can support. This carrying capacity stems from the fact that pressure downward on an arch has the effect of forcing the voussoirs together instead of apart. These stresses also tend to squeeze the blocks outward radially; loads divert these outward forces downward to exert a diagonal force, called thrust, that will cause the arch to collapse if it is not properly buttressed. Hence, the vertical supports, or posts, upon which an arch rests must be massive enough to buttress the thrust and conduct it into the foundation (as in Roman triumphal arches). Arches may rest on light supports, however, when they occur in a row, because the thrust of one arch counteracts the thrust of its neighbours, and the system remains stable as long as the arches at either end of the row are buttressed. This system is used in such structures as arched stone bridges and ancient Roman aqueducts. Arches were known in ancient Egypt and Greece but were considered unsuitable for monumental architecture and seldom used. The Romans, by contrast, used the semicircular arch in bridges, aqueducts, and large-scale architecture. In most cases they did not use mortar, relying simply on the precision of their stone dressing. The Arabs popularized the pointed arch, and it was in their mosques that this form first acquired its religious connotations. Medieval Europe made great use of the pointed arch, which constituted a basic element in Gothic architecture. In the late Middle Ages the segmental arch was introduced. This form and the elliptical arch had great value in bridge engineering because they permitted mutual support by a row of arches, carrying the lateral thrust to the abutments at either end of a bridge. Modern arches of steel, concrete, or laminated wood are highly rigid and lightweight, so that the horizontal thrust against the supports is small; this thrust can be further reduced by stretching a tie between the ends of the arch. Paris Table of Contents     Introduction & Top Questions     Character of the city Landscape People Economy Administration and society Cultural life     History References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics Images & Videos Paris; Eiffel Tower Paris Paris, France map of Paris c. 1900 Paris Paris Street; Rainy Day and a vision of the modern city Pont Neuf Paris: Sainte-Chapelle Notre-Dame de Paris gargoyles on the Notre-Dame Cathedral For Students Paris summary Quizzes A woman with a brightly-colored feather headdress and costume, during a Carnival parade in Rio de Janeiro. Rio Carnival. Brazil Carnival. World Cities The flag of the European Union Passport to Europe Catedral at night on Plaza de Armas (also known as plaza mayor) Lima, Peru. World Capitals Quiz Aerial view of Geneva, Switzerland from the north tower of St-Pierre Cathedral over the city's waterfronts on both sides of Rhone river as it flows out of Lake Geneva (Lake Leman). Most of the city's landmarks are visible, starting with the famous Jet D'E Match The City To Its Nickname Quiz Top of Brandenburg Gate, Berlin, Germany European Capitals Quiz Related Questions     What is the weather like in Paris?     What is the landscape of Paris? Read Next Sydney Opera House, Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour, New South Wales, Australia. Why New York Is Called "The Big Apple" and How 8 Other Famous Cities Got Their Nicknames Extension of the Louvre, Paris, designed in the Second Empire style by L.-T.-J. Visconti and Hector Lefuel, 1852-57 10 Places in (and around) Paris Discover Indian hijras participate in a religious procession in Gandhinagar, India, some 30 kilometers from Ahmedabad, on March 22, 2017. Hijra is a term used in South Asia which refers to transgender individuals who are born male. 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Falling Far from the Tree: 7 Brilliant Ways Seeds and Fruits Are Dispersed Group of children and their parents playing trick or treat on Halloween. Why Do We Celebrate Halloween? Home Geography & Travel Cities & Towns Cities & Towns P-S Geography & Travel Paris national capital, France Also known as: Lutetia Written by , , See All Fact-checked by Last Updated: Oct 31, 2023 • Article History Category: Geography & Travel Recent News Nov. 7, 2023, 8:46 AM ET (AP) Cyprus has a plan for a humanitarian sea corridor to Gaza and will present it to EU leaders Nov. 6, 2023, 4:56 PM ET (AP) Cardoso's double-double helps No. 6 South Carolina beat No. 10 Notre Dame 100-71 in Paris Top Questions Where is Paris located? What is the weather like in Paris? What is the landscape of Paris? Paris is the capital of what country? Paris; Eiffel Tower Paris; Eiffel Tower Paris, city and capital of France, situated in the north-central part of the country. People were living on the site of the present-day city, located along the Seine River some 233 miles (375 km) upstream from the river’s mouth on the English Channel (La Manche), by about 7600 bce. The modern city has spread from the island (the Île de la Cité) and far beyond both banks of the Seine. Paris Paris Paris occupies a central position in the rich agricultural region known as the Paris Basin, and it constitutes one of eight départements of the Île-de-France administrative region. It is by far the country’s most important centre of commerce and culture. Area city, 41 square miles (105 square km); metropolitan area, 890 square miles (2,300 square km). Pop. (2020 est.) city, 2,145,906; (2020 est.) urban agglomeration, 10,858,874. Character of the city For centuries Paris has been one of the world’s most important and attractive cities. It is appreciated for the opportunities it offers for business and commerce, for study, for culture, and for entertainment; its gastronomy, haute couture, painting, literature, and intellectual community especially enjoy an enviable reputation. Its sobriquet “the City of Light” (“la Ville Lumière”), earned during the Enlightenment, remains appropriate, for Paris has retained its importance as a centre for education and intellectual pursuits. Paris’s site at a crossroads of both water and land routes significant not only to France but also to Europe has had a continuing influence on its growth. Under Roman administration, in the 1st century bce, the original site on the Île de la Cité was designated the capital of the Parisii tribe and territory. The Frankish king Clovis I had taken Paris from the Gauls by 494 ce and later made his capital there. Under Hugh Capet (ruled 987–996) and the Capetian dynasty the preeminence of Paris was firmly established, and Paris became the political and cultural hub as modern France took shape. France has long been a highly centralized country, and Paris has come to be identified with a powerful central state, drawing to itself much of the talent and vitality of the provinces. Catedral at night on Plaza de Armas (also known as plaza mayor) Lima, Peru. Britannica Quiz World Capitals Quiz Paris, France Paris, France The three main parts of historical Paris are defined by the Seine. At its centre is the Île de la Cité, which is the seat of religious and temporal authority (the word cité connotes the nucleus of the ancient city). The Seine’s Left Bank (Rive Gauche) has traditionally been the seat of intellectual life, and its Right Bank (Rive Droite) contains the heart of the city’s economic life, but the distinctions have become blurred in recent decades. The fusion of all these functions at the centre of France and, later, at the centre of an empire, resulted in a tremendously vital environment. In this environment, however, the emotional and intellectual climate that was created by contending powers often set the stage for great violence in both the social and political arenas—the years 1358, 1382, 1588, 1648, 1789, 1830, 1848, and 1871 being notable for such events. map of Paris c. 1900 map of Paris c. 1900 In its centuries of growth Paris has for the most part retained the circular shape of the early city. Its boundaries have spread outward to engulf the surrounding towns (bourgs), usually built around monasteries or churches and often the site of a market. From the mid-14th to the mid-16th century, the city’s growth was mainly eastward; since then it has been westward. It comprises 20 arrondissements (municipal districts), each of which has its own mayor, town hall, and particular features. The numbering begins in the heart of Paris and continues in the spiraling shape of a snail shell, ending to the far east. Parisians refer to the arrondissements by number as the first (premier), second (deuxième), third (troisième), and so on. Adaptation to the problems of urbanization—such as immigration, housing, social infrastructure, public utilities, suburban development, and zoning—has produced the vast urban agglomeration. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Landscape City site Paris Paris Paris is positioned at the centre of the Île-de-France region, which is crossed by the Seine, Oise, and Marne rivers. The city is ringed with great forests of beech and oak; they are called the “lungs of Paris,” for they help to purify the air in the heavily industrialized region. The city proper is small; no corner is farther than about 6 miles (10 km) from the square in front of Notre-Dame Cathedral. It occupies a depression hollowed out by the Seine, and the surrounding heights have been respected as the limits of the city. Elevation varies from 430 feet (130 metres) at the butte of Montmartre, in the north, to 85 feet (26 metres) in the Grenelle area, in the southwest. The Seine flows for about 8 miles (13 km) through the centre of the city and 10 of the 20 arrondissements. It enters the city at the southeast corner, flows northwestward, and turns gradually southwestward, eventually leaving Paris at the southwest corner. As a result, what starts out as the stream’s east bank becomes its north bank and ends as the west bank, and the Parisians therefore adopted the simple, unchanging designation of Right Bank and Left Bank (when facing downstream). Specific places, however, are usually indicated by arrondissement or by quarter (quartier). At water level, some 30 feet (9 metres) below street level, the river is bordered—at least on those portions not transformed into expressways—by cobbled quays graced with trees and shrubs. From street level another line of trees leans toward the water. Between the two levels, the retaining walls, usually made of massive stone blocks, are decorated with the great iron rings once used to moor merchant vessels, and some are pierced by openings left by water gates for old palaces or inspection ports for subways, sewers, and underpasses. At intermittent points the walls are shawled in ivy. The garden effect of the Seine’s open waters and its tree-lined banks foster in part the appearance of Paris as a city well-endowed with green spaces. Tens of thousands of trees (mostly plane trees, with a scattering of chestnuts) line the streets as well, and numerous public parks, gardens, and squares dot the city. Most of the parks and gardens of the modern central city are on land that formerly was reserved for the kings on the old city’s outskirts. Under Napoleon III, who had been impressed by London’s parks while living in Britain, two ancient royal military preserves at the approaches to Paris were made into “English” parks—the Bois de Boulogne to the west and the Bois de Vincennes to the east. Moreover, during his reign a large area of land was laid out in promenades and garden squares. Under Mayor Jacques Chirac in the late 20th century, the municipal government initiated efforts to create new parks, and such projects continued into the 21st century. The Promenade Plantée is a partially elevated parkway built along an abandoned rail line and viaduct in the 12th arrondissement (municipal district) of Paris, on the right bank of the Seine River. It was the world’s first elevated park (first phase completed in 1994) and the first “green space” constructed on a viaduct; it has since inspired other cities to turn abandoned rail lines into public parkland. The entire feature runs some 4.5 km (about 3 miles) from the Opéra Bastille to the Bois de Vincennes. Located underneath the elevated portion is the Viaduc des Arts, which stretches along the Avenue Daumesnil. Its former archways house specialized commercial establishments. Neoclassicism Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the musical movement, see Neoclassicism (music). Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss; by Antonio Canova; 1787; marble; 155 cm × 168 cm; Louvre Charles Towneley in his sculpture gallery; by Johann Zoffany; 1782; oil on canvas; height: 127 cm, width: 102 cm; Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museum, Burnley, UK Neoclassicism (also spelled Neo-classicism) was a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born in Rome largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, at the time of the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, but its popularity spread across Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals.[1][2][3][4] The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, latterly competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th and up to the 21st century.[5][6] European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Rococo style. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornamentation and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of Rome and Ancient Greece, and were more immediately drawn from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. The Neoclassical writers and talkers, patrons and collectors, artists and sculptors of 1765–1830 paid homage to an idea of the generation of Phidias, but the sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity. The "Rococo" art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Wood's The Ruins of Palmyra. Even Greece was all-but-unvisited, a rough backwater of the Ottoman Empire, dangerous to explore, so Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was mediated through drawings and engravings, which subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" the monuments of Greece, not always consciously. The Empire style, a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts, had its cultural centre in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Especially in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the United States and Russia.[citation needed] History Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period,[7] which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style.[8] While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well.[9] The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology.[10][11] Johann Joachim Winckelmann, often called "the father of archaeology"[12] The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. His books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",[13] and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he said we find "not only nature at its most beautiful but also something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its beauty, which, as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches us, come from images created by the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, but his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was: "The only way for us to become great or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".[14] The Industrial Revolution saw global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes.[15] There was tremendous material advancement and increased prosperity.[16] With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.[17] "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a "classical" model. In English, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar movement in English literature, which began considerably earlier, is called Augustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar. In music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of 20th-century developments. However, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing ornamentation, increasing the role of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.[18] Anton Raphael Mengs; Judgement of Paris; circa 1757; oil on canvas; height: 226 cm, width: 295 cm, bought by Catherine the Great from the studio; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms as "the true style", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as being revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble Baroque of the age of Louis XIV, for which a considerable nostalgia had developed as France's dominant military and political position started a serious decline.[19] Ingres's coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics. Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing found in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered, at Pompeii and Herculaneum and, like most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citing Pliny the Younger's comments on the decline of painting in his period.[20] As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the High Renaissance of Raphael's generation, frescos in Nero's Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration of Nicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.[21] Painting, drawing and printmaking See also: Capriccio (art) Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome; by Giovanni Paolo Panini; 1737; oil on canvas; 98.9 x 137.49 cm; Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, US Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome; by Giovanni Paolo Panini; 1737; oil on canvas; 98.9 x 137.49 cm; Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, US   The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . .; by Giovanni Battista Piranesi; c.1750; etching; size of the entire sheet: 33.5 × 49.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . .; by Giovanni Battista Piranesi; c.1750; etching; size of the entire sheet: 33.5 × 49.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City   A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery; by Joseph Wright of Derby; c.1766; oil on canvas; 1.47 x 2.03 m; Derby Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England[22] A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery; by Joseph Wright of Derby; c.1766; oil on canvas; 1.47 x 2.03 m; Derby Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England[22]   The Attributes of the Arts; by Anne Vallayer-Coster; 1769; oil on canvas; 90 x 121 cm; Louvre[23] The Attributes of the Arts; by Anne Vallayer-Coster; 1769; oil on canvas; 90 x 121 cm; Louvre[23]   Ariadne Abandoned; by Angelica Kauffmann; before 1782; oil on canvas; 88 x 70.5 cm; Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden, Germany[24] Ariadne Abandoned; by Angelica Kauffmann; before 1782; oil on canvas; 88 x 70.5 cm; Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden, Germany[24]   Oath of the Horatii; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27 m; Louvre[25] Oath of the Horatii; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27 m; Louvre[25]   Self-Portrait with a Harp; by Rose-Adélaïde Ducreux; 1791; oil on canvas; 193 x 128.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Self-Portrait with a Harp; by Rose-Adélaïde Ducreux; 1791; oil on canvas; 193 x 128.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Achilles mourning Patrocles; after John Flaxman; 1795; engraving after a drawing; unknown size; unknown location Achilles mourning Patrocles; after John Flaxman; 1795; engraving after a drawing; unknown size; unknown location   Portrait of Citizen Belley, Ex-Representative of the Colonies; by Anne-Louis Girodet; 1796–1797; oil on canvas; 1.59 x 1.11 m; Musée national du château et de Trianon, Versailles, France[26] Portrait of Citizen Belley, Ex-Representative of the Colonies; by Anne-Louis Girodet; 1796–1797; oil on canvas; 1.59 x 1.11 m; Musée national du château et de Trianon, Versailles, France[26]   Cupid and Psyche; by François Gérard; 1798; oil on canvas; 186 x 132 cm; Louvre[27] Cupid and Psyche; by François Gérard; 1798; oil on canvas; 186 x 132 cm; Louvre[27]   Julie Lebrun as Flora; by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun; c.1799; oil on canvas; 129.5 x 97.8 cm; Museum of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, Florida, US Julie Lebrun as Flora; by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun; c.1799; oil on canvas; 129.5 x 97.8 cm; Museum of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, Florida, US   Portrait of a Black Woman, by Marie-Guillemine Benoist; 1800; oil on canvas; 81 x 65 cm; Louvre[28] Portrait of a Black Woman, by Marie-Guillemine Benoist; 1800; oil on canvas; 81 x 65 cm; Louvre[28]   Melancholy; by Constance Marie Charpentier; 1801; oil on canvas; 130 x 165; Musée de Picardie, Amiens, France[29] Melancholy; by Constance Marie Charpentier; 1801; oil on canvas; 130 x 165; Musée de Picardie, Amiens, France[29]   Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes; by Marie-Denise Villers; 1801; oil on canvas; 161.3 x 128.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[30] Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes; by Marie-Denise Villers; 1801; oil on canvas; 161.3 x 128.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[30]   Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa; by Antoine-Jean Gros; 1804; oil on canvas; 5.2 x 7.2 m; Louvre[31] Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa; by Antoine-Jean Gros; 1804; oil on canvas; 5.2 x 7.2 m; Louvre[31]   Portrait of Empress Josephine; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon; 1805; oil on canvas; 244 x 179 cm; Louvre[32] Portrait of Empress Josephine; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon; 1805; oil on canvas; 244 x 179 cm; Louvre[32]   Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne; by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres; 1806; oil on canvas; 2.62 x 1.62 m; Army Museum, Paris[25] Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne; by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres; 1806; oil on canvas; 2.62 x 1.62 m; Army Museum, Paris[25]   The Genius of Art; by Karl Briullov; 1819-1821; gray paper, pencil, chalk, charcoal, and pastel; 65.2 x 62.2; Russian Museum, Saint Petersburg The Genius of Art; by Karl Briullov; 1819-1821; gray paper, pencil, chalk, charcoal, and pastel; 65.2 x 62.2; Russian Museum, Saint Petersburg It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some of Kenneth Clark's comments on Anton Raphael Mengs' ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani,[33] by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and perhaps of later times".[34] The drawings, subsequently turned into prints, of John Flaxman used very simple line drawing (thought to be the purest classical medium[35]) and figures mostly in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects, and once "fired the artistic youth of Europe" but are now "neglected",[36] while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described as having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" by Fritz Novotny.[37] Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman, Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model, as Winckelmann recommended. The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".[38] Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making the Grand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his Vedute (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of Carceri d'Invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration".[39] The Swiss-born Johann Heinrich Füssli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.[40] David's many students included Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works always give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, but his style, once formed, changed little.[41] Sculpture An Arch-Rascal (no. 33 in a character head series); by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt; after 1770; alabaster; height: 38 cm; Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Vienna, Austria[42] An Arch-Rascal (no. 33 in a character head series); by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt; after 1770; alabaster; height: 38 cm; Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Vienna, Austria[42]   Mars and Venus; by Johan Tobias Sergel; c.1775; marble; height: 93 cm; Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden[43] Mars and Venus; by Johan Tobias Sergel; c.1775; marble; height: 93 cm; Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden[43]   Mercury or The Trade; by Augustin Pajou; 1780; marble; height: 196 cm; Louvre Mercury or The Trade; by Augustin Pajou; 1780; marble; height: 196 cm; Louvre   The Winter; by Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1783; marble; height: 145 cm; Musée Fabre, Montpellier, France[44] The Winter; by Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1783; marble; height: 145 cm; Musée Fabre, Montpellier, France[44]   Cephalus and Aurora; by John Flaxman; 1789–1790; probably marble; unknown dimensions; Lady Lever Art Gallery, Merseyside, England Cephalus and Aurora; by John Flaxman; 1789–1790; probably marble; unknown dimensions; Lady Lever Art Gallery, Merseyside, England   The Princesses Louisa and Friderica of Prussia; by Johann Gottfried Schadow; 1795–1797; marble; height: 172 cm; Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany[43] The Princesses Louisa and Friderica of Prussia; by Johann Gottfried Schadow; 1795–1797; marble; height: 172 cm; Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany[43]   Venus Victrix; by Antonio Canova; 1804–1808; marble; length: 200 cm; Galleria Borghese, Rome[45] Venus Victrix; by Antonio Canova; 1804–1808; marble; length: 200 cm; Galleria Borghese, Rome[45]   Bust of Madame Récamier; by Joseph Chinard; 1805 or 1806; marble; 80 x 42 x 30 cm; Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, Lyon, France Bust of Madame Récamier; by Joseph Chinard; 1805 or 1806; marble; 80 x 42 x 30 cm; Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon, Lyon, France   The Three Graces; by Antonio Canova; 1813–1816; marble; height: 1.82 m; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia[46] The Three Graces; by Antonio Canova; 1813–1816; marble; height: 1.82 m; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia[46]   Ganymede and Jupiter; by Bertel Thorvaldsen; 1817; marble; height: 94 cm; Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark[43] Ganymede and Jupiter; by Bertel Thorvaldsen; 1817; marble; height: 94 cm; Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark[43] If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them. Although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "Classical Period" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.[47] The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of Jean-Antoine Houdon, whose work was mainly portraits, very often as busts, which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His style became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or being unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington, as well as busts of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and other founders of the new republic.[48][49] Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces.[50] All these, and Flaxman, were still active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century. An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel.[51] John Flaxman was also, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were the leading German artists,[52] with Franz Anton von Zauner in Austria. The late Baroque Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions.[53] Like Piranesi's Carceri, these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome. Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its own, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads,[54] the European Neoclassical manner was adopted there, and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart. Architecture and the decorative arts Main articles: Neoclassical architecture, Louis XVI style, Directoire style, Empire style, Adam style, and Biedermeier Hôtel Gouthière, Rue Pierre-Bullet no. 6, Paris, possibly by J. Métivier, 1780[55] "The Etruscan room", from Potsdam, Germany, c.1840, illustration by Friedrich Wilhelm Klose Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same time.[56] Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden, Poland and Russia. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for Catherine II's lover, Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian stuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo. A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.[according to whom?] In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeier furniture made in Austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and in Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases. The style was international; Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great, in Russian St. Petersburg. Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,[57] with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the Goût grec ("Greek style"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the "Louis XVI" style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".[58] Château de Malmaison, 1800, room for the Empress Joséphine, on the cusp between Directoire style and Empire style From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. At the same time the Empire style was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States,[57] the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon style in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".[59] An earlier phase of the style was called the Adam style in Great Britain and "Louis Seize", or Louis XVI, in France. Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —, although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.[who?] The centres of several European cities, notably St. Petersburg and Munich, came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture. Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance. France Louis XVI style (1760–1789) Main article: Louis XVI style Central pavilion of the École Militaire, Paris, 1752, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel[60] Central pavilion of the École Militaire, Paris, 1752, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel[60]   Panthéon, Paris, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758–1790[61] Panthéon, Paris, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758–1790[61]   Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761-1770[62] Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761-1770[62]   Facade of the Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63] Facade of the Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63]   Staircase of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63] Staircase of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63]   Interior of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63] Interior of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[63]   Commode of Madame du Barry; by Martin Carlin (attribution); 1772; oak base veneered with pearwood, rosewood and amaranth, soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, bronze gilt, white marble; 87 x 119 cm; Louvre[64] Commode of Madame du Barry; by Martin Carlin (attribution); 1772; oak base veneered with pearwood, rosewood and amaranth, soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, bronze gilt, white marble; 87 x 119 cm; Louvre[64]   Hôtel du Châtelet, Paris, unknown architect, 1776[65] Hôtel du Châtelet, Paris, unknown architect, 1776[65]   Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France, by Victor Louis, 1777-1780[66] Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France, by Victor Louis, 1777-1780[66]   Parisian corner cabinet; by Jean Henri Riesener; 1780–1790; oak, mahogany, marble, and ormolu mounts; 94.3 × 81.3 × 55.9 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, US[67] Parisian corner cabinet; by Jean Henri Riesener; 1780–1790; oak, mahogany, marble, and ormolu mounts; 94.3 × 81.3 × 55.9 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, US[67]   Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and gilt bronze; height: 2 m, diameter: 0.90 m; Louvre Large vase; 1783; hard porcelain and gilt bronze; height: 2 m, diameter: 0.90 m; Louvre   The Cabinet Doré of Marie-Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783[68] The Cabinet Doré of Marie-Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783[68]   Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pine frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre[69] Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pine frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre[69]   Writing table of Marie-Antoinette; by Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre[69] Writing table of Marie-Antoinette; by Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre[69]   Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; height: 32.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; height: 32.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Pair of vases; 1789; hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; height (each): 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Pair of vases; 1789; hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; height (each): 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud; 1788; carved and gilded walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud; 1788; carved and gilded walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.[70] The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so, ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.[71] The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by antiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs (rosettes, beads, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also very used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).[72] Directoire style (1789–1804) Main article: Directoire style Panel win an grotesque in the Hôtel Gouthière, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date Panel win an grotesque in the Hôtel Gouthière, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date   Rue Jacob no. 46, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date Rue Jacob no. 46, Paris, unknown architect, unknown date   Astronomical clock; by Philippe-Jacques Corniquet; c.1794; gilt bronze and enamel face; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris[73] Astronomical clock; by Philippe-Jacques Corniquet; c.1794; gilt bronze and enamel face; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris[73]   Fan; by Charles Percier, Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine and Antoine Denis Chaudet; c.1797-1799; paper, wood, and bone; 23.5 x 43.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) Fan; by Charles Percier, Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine and Antoine Denis Chaudet; c.1797-1799; paper, wood, and bone; 23.5 x 43.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)   Armchair of the salon of Madame Récamier; attributed to Jacob Frères; c.1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62 cm; Louvre[74] Armchair of the salon of Madame Récamier; attributed to Jacob Frères; c.1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62 cm; Louvre[74] Empire style (1804–1815) Main article: Empire style Coffeepot; 1797–1809; silver gilt; height: 33.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Coffeepot; 1797–1809; silver gilt; height: 33.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City   Empress Joséphine's Bedroom in Château de Malmaison, Rueil-Malmaison, France, by Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine, 1800-1802[75] Empress Joséphine's Bedroom in Château de Malmaison, Rueil-Malmaison, France, by Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine, 1800-1802[75]   Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf; height: 92.4 cm, width: 49.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf; height: 92.4 cm, width: 49.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Portico of the Palais Bourbon, Paris, by Bernard Poyet, 1806-1808[76] Portico of the Palais Bourbon, Paris, by Bernard Poyet, 1806-1808[76]   La Madeleine, Paris, by Pierre-Alexandre Vignon, 1807-1842[76] La Madeleine, Paris, by Pierre-Alexandre Vignon, 1807-1842[76]   Vase; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9 cm, diameter: 35.6 cm; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, US[77] Vase; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9 cm, diameter: 35.6 cm; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, US[77]   Egyptian Revival coin cabinet; by François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter; 1809–1819; mahogany (probably Swietenia mahagoni), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Egyptian Revival coin cabinet; by François-Honoré-Georges Jacob-Desmalter; 1809–1819; mahogany (probably Swietenia mahagoni), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Clock with Mars and Venus; c. 1810; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90 cm; Louvre Clock with Mars and Venus; c. 1810; gilded bronze and patina; height: 90 cm; Louvre   King of Rome's Cradle; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, Henri Victor Roguier, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot and Pierre-Philippe Thomire; 1811; wood, silver gilt, mother-of-pearl, sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria[78] King of Rome's Cradle; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, Henri Victor Roguier, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot and Pierre-Philippe Thomire; 1811; wood, silver gilt, mother-of-pearl, sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria[78]   Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art It's representative for the new French society that has exited the revolution which set the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard machine is invented during this period (which revolutionises the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours is red, decorated with gilt bronze. Bright colours are also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, bleu, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture includes wood panels decorated with gilt reliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs are placed geometrically. The walls are covered in stuccos, wallpaper pr fabrics. Fireplace mantels are made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consist of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather is also used for upholstery).[79] All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis XIV style. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV, Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and N (for Napoleon), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially lyres). Despite their antique derivation, the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.[80] Italy Palazzo Grassi, on the Grand canal in Venice, by Giorgio Massari, 1748-1772   La Scala Opera House, Milan, by Giuseppe Piermarini, completed in 1778   Palazzo Belgioioso, Milan, by Giuseppe Piermarini, 1781   Villa Belgiojoso Bonaparte, Milan, by Leopoldo Pollack, 1790-1796   Piazza del Plebiscito, Naples, unknown architect, 1809-1846   Piazza del Popolo (Rome), redesigned between 1811 and 1822, by Giuseppe Valadier   Education of the Infant Bacchus; by Niccolò Amastini; first half 19th century; onyx with gold frame; overall (in setting): 6.5 x 4.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Education of the Infant Bacchus; by Niccolò Amastini; first half 19th century; onyx with gold frame; overall (in setting): 6.5 x 4.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted in the Italian unification in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style. The Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around c. 1750 and lasted until c. 1850. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the Grand Tour in Italy with rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. It first centred in Rome where artists such as Antonio Canova and Jacques-Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of Vedute, like Canaletto and Giovanni Paolo Panini, also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of Palladio and saw in Luigi Vanvitelli and Filippo Juvarra the main interpreters of the style. Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement: the main figures of the period include Vittorio Alfieri, Giuseppe Parini, Vincenzo Monti and Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi and Alessandro Manzoni (nephew of Cesare Beccaria), who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism. The virtuoso violinist Paganini and the operas of Rossini, Donnizetti, Bellini and, later, Verdi dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music. The art of Francesco Hayez and especially that of the Macchiaioli represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art. Romania Round church of Saint Demetrius, Lețcani, unknown architect, 1795[81] Round church of Saint Demetrius, Lețcani, unknown architect, 1795[81]   Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by Michel Sanjouand, c.1835; with a new level with caryatids added in 1882 by Joseph Hartmann[82] Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by Michel Sanjouand, c.1835; with a new level with caryatids added in 1882 by Joseph Hartmann[82]   The old building of the University of Bucharest, designed by Alexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures by Karl Storck, 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s[83] The old building of the University of Bucharest, designed by Alexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures by Karl Storck, 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s[83]   Romanian Athenaeum on Calea Victoriei, Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895[84] Romanian Athenaeum on Calea Victoriei, Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895[84]   Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals' house of the Central Girls' School, Bucharest, unknown designer, 1890 Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals' house of the Central Girls' School, Bucharest, unknown designer, 1890   Arabesque on a corner of Strada General H.M. Berthelot no. 52, Bucharest, unknown architect, 1890 Arabesque on a corner of Strada General H.M. Berthelot no. 52, Bucharest, unknown architect, 1890   Interior of the Cesianu-Racoviță Palace (Strada C.A. Rosetti no. 5) Bucharest, by Jules Berthet, 1892-1902 Interior of the Cesianu-Racoviță Palace (Strada C.A. Rosetti no. 5) Bucharest, by Jules Berthet, 1892-1902   Calea Unirii no. 73, Craiova, unknown architect, c.1900 Calea Unirii no. 73, Craiova, unknown architect, c.1900 During the 19th century, the predominant style in Wallachia and Moldavia, later the Kingdom of Romania, was Classicism which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they start building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects study in Western European schools as well. One example is Alexandru Orăscu, one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania. Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on Calea Victoriei (Bucharest), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architect Michel Sanjouand. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architect Joseph Hartmann[85][86] Russia and the Soviet Union Ostankino Palace, Moscow, Russia, by Francesco Camporesi, completed in 1798 Ostankino Palace, Moscow, Russia, by Francesco Camporesi, completed in 1798   Arkhangelskoye Estate, Krasnogorsky District, Moscow Oblast, by Jacob Guerne, unknown date Arkhangelskoye Estate, Krasnogorsky District, Moscow Oblast, by Jacob Guerne, unknown date In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.[87] With the crackdown on architects independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in Stalinist architecture, although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Art Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools. Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the USSR since it did not rely on modern construction technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture. The United Kingdom Main articles: Adam style and Wedgwood Kedleston Hall, Kedleston, Derbyshire, England, by Robert Adam, 1760–1770[88] Kedleston Hall, Kedleston, Derbyshire, England, by Robert Adam, 1760–1770[88]   Eating Room, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1761[89] Eating Room, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1761[89]   Syon House, Middlesex, England, by Robert Adam, 1762[88] Syon House, Middlesex, England, by Robert Adam, 1762[88]   The Hall, Osterley Park, by Robert Adam, 1767[90] The Hall, Osterley Park, by Robert Adam, 1767[90]   Carpet; by Robert Adam; 1770–1780; knotted wool; 505.5 x 473.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Carpet; by Robert Adam; 1770–1780; knotted wool; 505.5 x 473.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City   Apotheosis of Virgil; by John Flaxman; c.1776; jasperware; diameter: 41 cm; Harris Museum, Preston, Lancashire, UK[91] Apotheosis of Virgil; by John Flaxman; c.1776; jasperware; diameter: 41 cm; Harris Museum, Preston, Lancashire, UK[91]   Somerset House, London, by William Chambers, 1776-1801[92] Somerset House, London, by William Chambers, 1776-1801[92]   Urn on pedestal; c.1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; height: 49.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Urn on pedestal; c.1780 with latter additions; by Robert Adam; inlaid mahogany; height: 49.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Side table with many acanthus leafs and two bucrania; by Robert Adam; c.1780 with later addition; mahogany; overall: 88.6 × 141.3 × 57.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art Side table with many acanthus leafs and two bucrania; by Robert Adam; c.1780 with later addition; mahogany; overall: 88.6 × 141.3 × 57.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art   Covered Wedgwood urn; c.1800; jasper ware with relief decoration; overall: 19.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, US[93] Covered Wedgwood urn; c.1800; jasper ware with relief decoration; overall: 19.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, US[93] The Adam style was created by two brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-dart bands, medallions, and any other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (especially the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to Louis XVI furniture.[94] Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material called jasperware, a hard and fine-grained type of stoneware. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue. The United States Main article: Federal style Maple secretary; c. 1790; maple and brass; height: 242.57 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, US Maple secretary; c. 1790; maple and brass; height: 242.57 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, US   Candlestand; 1790–1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 x 49.21 x 48.9 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art Candlestand; 1790–1800; mahogany, birch, and various inlays; 107 x 49.21 x 48.9 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art   Writing desk; 1790–1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 x 90.17 x 51.44 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art Writing desk; 1790–1810; satinwood, mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine; 153.67 x 90.17 x 51.44 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art   White House, Washington, D.C., by James Hoban, 1792-1829[95] White House, Washington, D.C., by James Hoban, 1792-1829[95]   Capitol Building, Washington, D.C., 1793–1863, by William Thornton and Thomas Ustick Walter[95] Capitol Building, Washington, D.C., 1793–1863, by William Thornton and Thomas Ustick Walter[95]   Armchair; possibly by Ephraim Haines; 1805–1815; mahogany and cane; height: 84.77 cm, width: 52.07 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art Armchair; possibly by Ephraim Haines; 1805–1815; mahogany and cane; height: 84.77 cm, width: 52.07 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art   Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815–1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine woods; 74.93 x 92.71 x 46.67 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815–1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine woods; 74.93 x 92.71 x 46.67 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art   The Rotunda, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, 1822-1826[96] The Rotunda, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, 1822-1826[96]   South Carolina State House, Columbia, South Carolina, by John Rudolph Niernsee, 1855 South Carolina State House, Columbia, South Carolina, by John Rudolph Niernsee, 1855   Brevard-Rice House, Garden District, New Orleans, by James Calrow, 1857[97] Brevard-Rice House, Garden District, New Orleans, by James Calrow, 1857[97] On the American continent, architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne style, and an Chippendale one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes gilded).[98] Gardens In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design. The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe House and Stourhead.[99] Fashion James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra, by Gavin Hamilton, 1758 James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra, by Gavin Hamilton, 1758   Dresses from the Gallery of Fashion, 1794–1802 Dresses from the Gallery of Fashion, 1794–1802   Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford in a Bedford Crop, by William Grimaldi after John Hoppner, early 19th century, based on a work of 1796–1797 Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford in a Bedford Crop, by William Grimaldi after John Hoppner, early 19th century, based on a work of 1796–1797   Madame Raymond de Verninac by Jacques-Louis David, with clothes and chair in Directoire style. "Year 7": that is, 1798–1799 Madame Raymond de Verninac by Jacques-Louis David, with clothes and chair in Directoire style. "Year 7": that is, 1798–1799   Revolutionary socialite Thérésa Tallien, by Marie-Guillemine Benoist, c.1799 Revolutionary socialite Thérésa Tallien, by Marie-Guillemine Benoist, c.1799   Portrait of Madame Récamier, by Jacques-Louis David, 1800 Portrait of Madame Récamier, by Jacques-Louis David, 1800   Point de Convention, by Louis-Léopold Boilly, c.1801 Point de Convention, by Louis-Léopold Boilly, c.1801   Illustration showing women playing badminton, hand-colored etching from the series Le Bon Genre, by François Joseph Bosio, 1801 Illustration showing women playing badminton, hand-colored etching from the series Le Bon Genre, by François Joseph Bosio, 1801   Madame Récamier, by François Gérard, 1802 Madame Récamier, by François Gérard, 1802   Kensington Garden dresses for June, fashion plate from Le Beau Monde, 1808 Kensington Garden dresses for June, fashion plate from Le Beau Monde, 1808 In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il n'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not be more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.[100] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead. Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the First French Empire of Napoleon, but his first Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.[101] By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe. Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for hair, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or knee-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of the French Revolutionary Wars, and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles. The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-like Arab robes. In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, only one shows a single breeched leg prominently. However the Americans Copley and Benjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works like West's The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley's The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819. Classically inspired male hairstyles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire's Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs,[102] and the style was also worn by women, the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus.[103] Music Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement; in this case it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and physical education. The 17th–18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before World War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. Respighi's Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this style; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-like Octet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine de-cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations. Later Neoclassicism and continuations Beaux-Arts - Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[104] Beaux-Arts - Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[104]   Beaux-Arts - Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[104] Beaux-Arts - Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[104]   Beaux-Arts - Grand Central Terminal, New York City, by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore, 1903[105] Beaux-Arts - Grand Central Terminal, New York City, by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore, 1903[105]   Beaux-Arts - Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, by André Arfvidson Beaux-Arts - Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, by André Arfvidson   Late Neoclassical - The West building of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., US, by John Russell Pope, 1941 Late Neoclassical - The West building of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., US, by John Russell Pope, 1941 Part of a series on Classicism Classical antiquity Greco-Roman worldLanguage Age of Enlightenment NeoclassicismWeimar Classicism EconomicsMusicPhysics 20th-century neoclassicism Between World War I and II BalletEconomicsMusic Philosophy vte After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style, being replaced by Eclecticism of Classical styles. The Palais Garnier in Paris is a good example of this, since despite being predominantly Neoclassical, it features elements and ornaments taken from Baroque and Renaissance architecture. This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture, before WW1. Besides Neoclassicism, the Beaux-Arts de Paris well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles. Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I.[106] In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time. There was an entire 20th-century movement in the non-visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II. (For information on the musical aspects, see 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, see Great Books.) This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives. Art Deco Chest of drawers, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by Clément Mère; 1910; maple, ebony, leather and ivory; 87.5 x 96 x 37 cm; Musée d'Orsay, Paris[107] Chest of drawers, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by Clément Mère; 1910; maple, ebony, leather and ivory; 87.5 x 96 x 37 cm; Musée d'Orsay, Paris[107]   Dressing table and chair, a reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by Paul Follot; 1919; marble and encrusted, lacquered, and gilded wood; unknown dimsensions; Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris Dressing table and chair, a reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by Paul Follot; 1919; marble and encrusted, lacquered, and gilded wood; unknown dimsensions; Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris   Hommage à Jean Goujon; by Alfred Janniot; 1919–1924; limestone partially coloured; 220 x 235 x 129 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisboa, Portugal[108] Hommage à Jean Goujon; by Alfred Janniot; 1919–1924; limestone partially coloured; 220 x 235 x 129 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisboa, Portugal[108]   Plate with design for an interior from the collection of projects Architectures, by Louis Süe and André Mare, 1921 Plate with design for an interior from the collection of projects Architectures, by Louis Süe and André Mare, 1921   Boudoir from the Hôtel du Collectionneur, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, at the 1925 Paris Exhibition, by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann Boudoir from the Hôtel du Collectionneur, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, at the 1925 Paris Exhibition, by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann   "Little Horses" dress; by Madeleine Vionnet; 1925; rayon crepe, black and gold seed beads; Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology, New York "Little Horses" dress; by Madeleine Vionnet; 1925; rayon crepe, black and gold seed beads; Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology, New York   Embassy of France, Belgrade, Serbia, by Roger-Henri Expert with Josif Najman as assistant, designed in 1926, built in 1939[109][110] Embassy of France, Belgrade, Serbia, by Roger-Henri Expert with Josif Najman as assistant, designed in 1926, built in 1939[109][110]   Château de Sept-Saulx, Grand Est, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, France, by Louis Süe, 1928-1929[111] Château de Sept-Saulx, Grand Est, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, France, by Louis Süe, 1928-1929[111]   Daily Telegraph Building, London, by Charles Ernest Elcock, after consulting with Thomas S. Tait, 1928[112] Daily Telegraph Building, London, by Charles Ernest Elcock, after consulting with Thomas S. Tait, 1928[112]   Design for Severance Hall grand foyer of the Severance Hall, Cleveland, US, by Walker and Weeks, c.1930 Design for Severance Hall grand foyer of the Severance Hall, Cleveland, US, by Walker and Weeks, c.1930   Dumitru Săvulescu House (Bulevardul Dacia no. 73), Bucharest, Romania, by Gheorghe Negoescu, 1933[113] Dumitru Săvulescu House (Bulevardul Dacia no. 73), Bucharest, Romania, by Gheorghe Negoescu, 1933[113]   Grave of the Străjescu Family, Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, by George Cristinel, 1934[106] Grave of the Străjescu Family, Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, by George Cristinel, 1934[106]   Avenue Foch no. 53, Paris, by Charles Abella, 1939[111] Avenue Foch no. 53, Paris, by Charles Abella, 1939[111] Although it started to be seen as 'dated' after WW1, principles, proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet. Art Deco was the dominant style during the interwar period, and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past, including the Louis XVI, Directoire and Empire (the period styles of French Neoclassicism). At the same time, this French elite was equally capable of appreciating Modern art, like the works of Pablo Picasso or Amedeo Modigliani. The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style, which uses both new and old elements. The Palais de Tokyo from 1937 in Paris, by André Aubert and Marcel Dastugue, is a good example of this. Although ornaments are not used here, the facade being decorated only with reliefs, the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism. Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann or Louis Süe & André Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of Isadora Duncan. Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings. The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements, shapes and proportions, and the appetite for 'new', for Modernism, is the result of multiple factors. One of them is eclecticism. The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit. Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux-Arts, Neoclassicism, or of cultures distant in time and space (Ancient Egypt, Pre-Columbian Americas, or Sub-Saharian African art) are put together with references to Modernist avant-guard artists of the early 20th century (Henri Matisse, Amedeo Modigliani or Constantin Brâncuși). The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture. Without the contribution of the Beaux-Arts trained architects, Art Deco architecture would have remained, with the exception of residential buildings, a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale, like the pavilions of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts from 1925, controversial at their time. Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism was consumer culture. Objects and buildings in the puritan International style, devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past, were too radical for the general public. In interwar France and England, the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament, like the International style. The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1, through the efforts of decorators like Maurice Dufrêne, Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, André Groult, Léon Jallot or Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the Louis XVI, Directoire and Louis Philippe), and who want to bring a new approach to these styles. The neo-Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1, around 1910, and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings. A good example of this is the Château de Sept-Saulx in Grand Est, France, by Louis Süe, 1928–1929.[114] Neoclassicism and Totalitarian regimes Main articles: Socialist Realism, Nazi architecture, and Rationalism (architecture) Socialist Realist - Lenin State Library, Moscow, Russia, by Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Helfreich, 1928-1941[115] Socialist Realist - Lenin State Library, Moscow, Russia, by Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Helfreich, 1928-1941[115]   Socialist Realist - Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov; by Isaak Brodsky; 1929; oil on canvas; 95.5 x 129.5 cm; private collection[116] Socialist Realist - Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov; by Isaak Brodsky; 1929; oil on canvas; 95.5 x 129.5 cm; private collection[116]   Fascist - University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), Bucharest, Romania, by Petre Antonescu, 1933-1935[117] Fascist - University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), Bucharest, Romania, by Petre Antonescu, 1933-1935[117]   Nazi - Familie (The Family); by Josef Thorak; c.1937; probably bronze; unknown dimensions; exhibited at the 1937 Paris World Fair Nazi - Familie (The Family); by Josef Thorak; c.1937; probably bronze; unknown dimensions; exhibited at the 1937 Paris World Fair   Nazi - New Reich Chancellery, Berlin, by Albert Speer, 1938-1939[118] Nazi - New Reich Chancellery, Berlin, by Albert Speer, 1938-1939[118]   Fascist - Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana, Rome, by Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto La Padula, and Mario Romano, 1939-1942[119] Fascist - Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana, Rome, by Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto La Padula, and Mario Romano, 1939-1942[119]   Socialist Realist - Lomonosov University, Moscow, by Lev Rudnev, 1947-1952[119] Socialist Realist - Lomonosov University, Moscow, by Lev Rudnev, 1947-1952[119]   Socialist Realist - Colonels' Quarter (Șoseaua Panduri no. 60–62), Bucharest, by I.Novițchi, C.Ionescu, C.Hacker and A.Șerbescu, 1950–1960[120] Socialist Realist - Colonels' Quarter (Șoseaua Panduri no. 60–62), Bucharest, by I.Novițchi, C.Ionescu, C.Hacker and A.Șerbescu, 1950–1960[120]   Socialist Realist - Homage; by Constantin Nitescu; c.1980; unknown technique; unknown dimensions; unknown location Socialist Realist - Homage; by Constantin Nitescu; c.1980; unknown technique; unknown dimensions; unknown location In Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, Romania under the rule of Carol II and the Soviet Union, during the 1920s and 1930s, totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art. Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes' expression of their permanence (despite their obvious novelty). The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms. When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania, architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms. Two good examples of this are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in Rome, and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46). In contrast, the Classicism of the Soviet Union, known as Socialist Realism, was bombastic, overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures, as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of 'Capitalist' or 'bourgeois' styles like Art Deco or Modernism. The Lomonosov University in Moscow is a good example of this. Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin, did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor. Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings, he stated that 'they spent people's money on beauty that no one needs, instead of building simpler, but more'. In the Soviet Union, Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection of Art Deco and Modernism, which the Communists saw as being too 'bourgeois' and 'capitalist'. This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism, and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin (1924–1953). In fine art. Generally, it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers, shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities, political assemblies, achievements of Soviet technology, and through depictions happy children staying around Lenin or Stalin. Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored. Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism. All artists had to join the state-controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style. The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty, presentation of correct ideology and accessibility. Realism, more easily understood by the masses, was the style of choice. At the beginning, in the Soviet Union, multiple competing avant-garde movements were present, notably Constructivism. However, as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s, avant-garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established. After Boris Iofan won the competition for the design of the Palace of the Soviets with a stepped classical tower, surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin, architecture soon reverted to pre-Revolutionary styles of art and architecture, untainted by Constructivism's perceived Western influence.[121] Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, paintings in this style continued to be produced, especially in countries where there was a strong personality cult of the leader in power, like in the case of Mao Zedong's China, Kim Il Sung's North Korea, or Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania. The Nazis suppressed Germany's vibrant avant-garde culture once they gained control of the government in 1933. Albert Speer was set as Adolf Hitler's architectural advisor in 1934, and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis' expressions of power. The Nazis' approach to architecture was riffled with contradictions: while Hitler and Speer's plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome, in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration from local vernaculars, trying to channel an 'authentic' German spirit. When it come to fine art, the Nazis created the term 'Degenerate art' for Modern art, a kind of art which to them was 'un-German', 'Jewish' or 'Communist'. The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to 'cultural bolshevism', the conspiracy theory that art (or culture broadly) was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race. Hitler's war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists, called the 'Degenerate Art exhibition' (German: Die Ausstellung "Entartete Kunst"). This exhibition was displayed next to the Great Exhibition of German Art, which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of. This way, the visitiors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as 'good' and 'bad'. With a similar atitude, the regime closes in 1931 the Bauhaus, an avant-garde art school in Dessau that will prove extremely influential in the future. It reopens in Berlin in 1932, but it's closed again in 1933. Compared to Germany and the Soviet Union, in Italy the avant-garde contributed to state architecture. Classical architecture was also an influence, echoing Benito Mussolini's far cruder attempts to create links between his Fascist regime and ancient Rome. Some Italian architects tried to create fusions between Modernism and Classicism, like Marcello Piacentini with the Sapienza University of Rome, or Giuseppe Terragni with Casa del Fascio in Como.[122] In Romania, towards the late 1930s, influenced by the Autocratic tendency of king Carol II, multiple state buildings are erected. They were Neoclassical, many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy. Examples in Bucharest include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), the Kretzulescu Apartment Building (Calea Victoriei no. 45), the CFR Building (Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no. 38) or the Victoria Palace (Piața Victoriei no. 1). The Royal Palace, whose interiors are mostly done in a neo-Adam style, stands out by being more decorated, a little closer to the architecture before WW1. Postmodernism J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California, US, by the partnership of Langdon and Wilson with Edward Genter as the project architect and archaeological advice from Dr Norman Neuerberg, 1970-1975[123] J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California, US, by the partnership of Langdon and Wilson with Edward Genter as the project architect and archaeological advice from Dr Norman Neuerberg, 1970-1975[123]   Interior courtyard of Les Arcades du Lac, Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France, by Ricardo Bofill, 1975-1981[124] Interior courtyard of Les Arcades du Lac, Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France, by Ricardo Bofill, 1975-1981[124]   Piazza d'Italia, New Orleans, US, by Charles Moore, 1978 Piazza d'Italia, New Orleans, US, by Charles Moore, 1978   Sheraton chair with applied decoration; by Robert Venturi for Knoll; 1978–1984, bent laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, USA[125] Sheraton chair with applied decoration; by Robert Venturi for Knoll; 1978–1984, bent laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, USA[125]   Apartment buildings on Bulevardul Unirii, Bucharest, Romania, unknown architects, 1980s Apartment buildings on Bulevardul Unirii, Bucharest, Romania, unknown architects, 1980s   Tea and coffee piazza set; by Charles Jencks; 1983; silver; unknown dimensions; unknown location[126] Tea and coffee piazza set; by Charles Jencks; 1983; silver; unknown dimensions; unknown location[126]   Louis XVI, lowboy; by Robert Venturi for Arc International; c.1985; laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, USA[127] Louis XVI, lowboy; by Robert Venturi for Arc International; c.1985; laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, USA[127]   Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, by Robert Venturi, 1987-1991[128] Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, by Robert Venturi, 1987-1991[128]   Pumping Station, Isle of Dogs, London, John Outram, 1988[127] Pumping Station, Isle of Dogs, London, John Outram, 1988[127]   77 West Wacker Drive, Chicago, US, by Ricardo Bofill, 1990-1992[129] 77 West Wacker Drive, Chicago, US, by Ricardo Bofill, 1990-1992[129]   Harold Washington Library, Chicago, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[130] Harold Washington Library, Chicago, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[130]   Entrance era of the Harold Washington Library, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[130] Entrance era of the Harold Washington Library, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[130]   M2 Building, Tokyo, Japan, by Kengo Kuma, 1991[131] M2 Building, Tokyo, Japan, by Kengo Kuma, 1991[131]   Antigone, Montpellier, France, by Ricardo Bofill, completed in 1992 Antigone, Montpellier, France, by Ricardo Bofill, completed in 1992   Children's Museum of Houston, Houston, US, by Robert Venturi, 1992[132] Children's Museum of Houston, Houston, US, by Robert Venturi, 1992[132]   The Forum Shops in Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, US, by Marnell Corrao Associates, 1992[133] The Forum Shops in Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, US, by Marnell Corrao Associates, 1992[133]   Exterior of the Trafford Centre, Manchester, UK, designed by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, with sculptures by Colin Spofforth, 1998[134] Exterior of the Trafford Centre, Manchester, UK, designed by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, with sculptures by Colin Spofforth, 1998[134]   Interior of the Trafford Centre, by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, 1998[134] Interior of the Trafford Centre, by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker, 1998[134]   Louis Ghost, a simplified reinterpretation of armchairs in the Louis XVI style; by Philippe Starck; 2009; polycarbonate; height: 94 cm; various locations[135] Louis Ghost, a simplified reinterpretation of armchairs in the Louis XVI style; by Philippe Starck; 2009; polycarbonate; height: 94 cm; various locations[135] An early text questioning Modernism was by architect Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), in which he recommended a revival of the 'presence of the past' in architectural design. He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as 'inclusion, inconsistency, compromise, accommodation, adaptation, superadjacency, equivalence, multiple focus, juxtaposition, or good and bad space.'[136] Robert Venturi's work reflected the broader counter-cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political, social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted. This rejection of Modernism is known as Postmodernism. Robert Venturi parodies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's well-known maxim 'less is more' with 'less is a bore'. During the 1980s and 1990s, some Postmodern architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo-Neoclassicism. Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments, using more or less proportions and other principles too. Post-Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as 'camp' or 'kitsch'. An architect who has been remarked through Post-Modern Classicism is Ricardo Bofill. His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris, known as Les Arcades du Lac from 1975 to 1981, and Les Espaces d'Abraxas from 1978 to 1983. A building that stands out through its revivalism is the J. Paul Getty Museum, in Malibu, California, from 1970 to 1975, inspired by the ancient Roman Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The J. Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism, like the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Germany, than to Post-Modern Classicism of the 1980s.[137] Architecture in the 21st century Main article: New Classical Architecture Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, London, by John Simpson, 2000-2002[138] Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, London, by John Simpson, 2000-2002[138]   Schermerhorn Symphony Center, Nashville, US, by Earl Swensson Associates, David M. Schwarz Architects, and Hastings Architecture Associates, 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center, Nashville, US, by Earl Swensson Associates, David M. Schwarz Architects, and Hastings Architecture Associates, 2006   Postmodern table with different legs, some of which are reminiscent of Neoclassical furniture; unknown designer; c.2010; painted wood; unknown dimensions; Cărturești Verona (Strada Arthur Verona no. 15), Bucharest, Romania Postmodern table with different legs, some of which are reminiscent of Neoclassical furniture; unknown designer; c.2010; painted wood; unknown dimensions; Cărturești Verona (Strada Arthur Verona no. 15), Bucharest, Romania   James Simon Gallery, entrance of the Neues Museum, Berlin, by David Chipperfield, 2009-2018 James Simon Gallery, entrance of the Neues Museum, Berlin, by David Chipperfield, 2009-2018 After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence. As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.[139] Also, a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum. For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacular) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.[140] In the United States, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example. In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries: Quinlan Terry's Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library. See also 1795–1820 in Western fashion American Empire (style) Antiquization Nazi architecture Neoclassical architecture Neoclassicism in France Neo-Grec, the late Greek-Revival style Skopje 2014 Notes  Stevenson, Angus (2010-08-19). Oxford Dictionary of English. ISBN 9780199571123.  Kohle, Hubertu. (August 7, 2006). "The road from Rome to Paris. 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Flammarion. Fortenberry, Diane (2017). The Art Museum (Revised ed.). London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-7502-6. Archived from the original on 2021-04-23. Retrieved 2021-04-23. Gontar, Cybele (October 2003). "Neoclassicism". New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Hodge, Susie (2019). The Short Story of Architecture. Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 978-1-7862-7370-3. Hopkins, Owen (2014). Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide. Laurence King. ISBN 978-178067-163-5. Honour, Hugh (1968). Neo-classicism. Style and Civilisation. Penguin.. Reprinted 1977. Hunt, Lynn (1998). "Freedom of Dress in Revolutionary France". In Melzer, Sara E.; Norberg, Kathryn (eds.). From the Royal to the Republican Body: Incorporating the Political in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century France. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520208070. Jones, Denna, ed. (2014). Architecture The Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-29148-1. Lăzărescu, Cezar; Cristea, Gabriel; Lăzărescu, Elena (1972). Arhitectura Românească în Imagini (in Romanian). Editura Meridiane. Novotny, Fritz. Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (2nd (reprinted 1980) ed.). Rifelj, Carol De Dobay (2010). Coiffures: Hair in Nineteenth-Century French Literature and Culture. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 9780874130997. Further reading Brown, Kevin (2017). Artist and Patrons: Court Art and Revolution in Brussels at the end of the Ancien Regime, Dutch Crossing, Taylor and Francis Eriksen, Svend. Early Neoclassicism in France (1974) Friedlaender, Walter (1952). David to Delacroix (originally published in German; reprinted 1980) Gromort, Georges, with introductory essay by Richard Sammons (2001). The Elements of Classical Architecture (Classical America Series in Art and Architecture) Harrison, Charles; Paul Wood and Jason Gaiger (eds) (2000; repr. 2003). Art in Theory 1648–1815: An Anthology of Changing Ideas Hartop, Christopher, with foreword by Tim Knox (2010). The Classical Ideal: English Silver, 1760–1840, exh. cat. Cambridge: John Adamson ISBN 978-0-9524322-9-6. Irwin, David (1966). English Neoclassical Art: Studies in Inspiration and Taste Johnson, James William. “What Was Neo-Classicism?” Journal of British Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, 1969, pp. 49–70. online Rosenblum, Robert (1967). Transformations in Late Eighteenth-Century Art External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neoclassicism. Neoclassicism in the "History of Art" "Neoclassicism Style Guide". British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2007-07-17. Neo-classical drawings in the Flemish Art Collection 19th Century Sculpture Derived From Greek Hellenistic Influence: Jacob Ungerer The Neoclassicising of Pompeii vte Western, Modern and Contemporary art movements List of art movements / Periods Premodern (Western) Ancient Thracian DacianNuragicAegean CycladicMinoanMinyan wareMycenaeanGreek Sub-MycenaeanProtogeometricGeometricOrientalizingArchaicBlack-figureRed-figureSevere styleClassicalKerch styleHellenistic "Baroque"Indo-Greek Greco-BuddhistNeo-AtticEtruscanScythianIberianGaulishRoman RepublicanGallo-RomanJulio-ClaudianPompeian StylesTrajanicSeveran Medieval Late antique Early ChristianCoptic EthiopianMigration Period Anglo-SaxonHunnicInsularLombardVisigothicDonor portraitPictishMozarabic RepoblaciónVikingByzantine IconoclastMacedonianPalaeologanItalo-ByzantineFrankish MerovingianCarolingianPre-RomanesqueOttonianRomanesque MosanSpanishNorman Norman-SicilianOpus AnglicanumGothic International GothicLucchese SchoolCrusadesNovgorod SchoolDuecento Sienese SchoolMudéjarMedieval cartography Italian schoolMajorcan schoolMappa mundi Renaissance Italian Renaissance Trecento Proto-RenaissanceFlorentine SchoolPittura infamanteQuattrocento Ferrarese SchoolForlivese SchoolVenetian SchoolDi sotto in sùCinquecento High RenaissanceBolognese SchoolMannerismCounter-ManieraNorthern Renaissance Early Netherlandish World landscapeGhent-Bruges schoolNorthern MannerismGerman Renaissance Cologne SchoolDanube schoolDutch and Flemish Renaissance Antwerp MannerismRomanismStill lifeEnglish Renaissance Tudor courtCretan SchoolTurquerieFontainebleau School 17th century Baroque Flemish BaroqueCaravaggisti in UtrechtTenebrismQuadraturaLouis XIII styleLutheran BaroqueStroganov SchoolAnimal paintingGuild of RomanistsDutch Golden Age Delft SchoolCapriccioHeptanese SchoolClassicism Louis XIV stylePoussinists and Rubenists 18th century Rococo RocailleLouis XV styleFredericianChinoiserieFête galanteNeoclassicism Goût grecLouis XVI styleAdam styleDirectoire stylePicturesque Colonial art Art of the African diaspora African-AmericanCaribbean HaitianColonial Asian art Arts in the Philippines Letras y figurasTipos del PaísColonial Asian BaroqueCompany styleLatin American art Casta paintingIndochristian art Chilote SchoolCusco SchoolQuito SchoolLatin American Baroque Art borrowing Western elements Islamic MoorishManichaeanMughalQajarQing handicraftsWestern influence in Japan Akita rangaUki-e Transition to modern (c. 1770–1862) Romanticism Fairy paintingDanish Golden AgeTroubadour styleNazarene movementPurismoShoreham AncientsDüsseldorf SchoolPre-RaphaelitesHudson River School American luminismOrientalismNorwich SchoolEmpire styleHistoricism RevivalismBiedermeierRealism Barbizon schoolCostumbrismoVerismo MacchiaioliAcademic art Munich School in GreeceNeo-GrecEtching revival Modern (1863–1944) 1863–1899 Neo-romanticism National romanticismYōgaJaponisme Anglo-Japanese styleBeuron SchoolHague SchoolPeredvizhnikiImpressionism American Hoosier GroupBoston SchoolAmsterdamCanadianHeidelberg SchoolAestheticismArts and Crafts Art potteryTonalismDecadent movementSymbolism RomanianRussianVolcano SchoolIncoherentsPost-Impressionism Neo-Impressionism LuminismDivisionismPointillismPont-Aven SchoolCloisonnismSynthetismLes NabisAmerican Barbizon school California TonalismCostumbrismo 1900–1914 Art NouveauPrimitivismCalifornia ImpressionismSecessionism Munich SecessionVienna SecessionBerlin SecessionSonderbundPennsylvania ImpressionismMir iskusstvaTen American PaintersFauvismExpressionism Die BrückeDer Blaue ReiterNoucentismeDeutscher WerkbundAmerican Realism Ashcan SchoolCubism Proto-CubismOrphismA NyolcakNeue Künstlervereinigung MünchenFuturism Cubo-FuturismArt DecoMetaphysicalRayonismProductivismSynchromismVorticism 1915–1944 Sosaku-hangaSuprematismCrystal CubismConstructivism Latin American Universal ConstructivismDadaShin-hangaNeoplasticism De StijlPurismReturn to order Novecento ItalianoFigurative Constructivism StupidCologne ProgressivesArbeitsrat für Kunst November GroupAustralian tonalismDresden SecessionSocial realismFunctionalism BauhausKinetic artAnthropophagyMingeiGroup of SevenNew ObjectivityGrosvenor SchoolNeues SehenSurrealism IranianLatin AmericanMexican muralismNeo-FauvismPrecisionismAeropitturaAssoScuola RomanaCercle et CarréHarlem RenaissanceKapistsRegionalism California Scene PaintingHeroic realism Socialist realismNazi artStreamline ModerneConcrete art Abstraction-CréationThe TenDimensionismBoston ExpressionismLeningrad School Contemporary and Postmodern (1945–present) 1945–1959 International Typographic StyleAbstract expressionism Washington Color SchoolVisionary art Vienna School of Fantastic RealismSpatialismColor fieldLyrical abstraction TachismeArte InformaleCOBRANuagismeGeneración de la RupturaJikken KōbōMetcalf ChateauMono-haNanyang StyleAction paintingAmerican Figurative Expressionism in New YorkNew media artNew York SchoolHard-edge paintingBay Area Figurative MovementLes PlasticiensGutai Art AssociationGendai Bijutsu KondankaiPop artSituationist InternationalSoviet Nonconformist Ukrainian undergroundLettrism Letterist InternationalUltra-LettristFlorida HighwaymenCybernetic artAntipodeans 1960–1969 Otra FiguraciónAfrofuturismNueva PresenciaZEROHappeningNeo-Dada Neo-Dada OrganizersOp artNouveau réalismeNouvelle tendanceCapitalist realismArt & LanguageArte PoveraBlack Arts MovementThe Caribbean Artists MovementChicano art movementConceptual artLand artSystems artVideo artMinimalismFluxusGenerative artPost-painterly abstractionIntermediaPsychedelic artNut ArtPhotorealismEnvironmental artPerformance artProcess artInstitutional critiqueLight and SpaceStreet artFeminist art movement in the USSaqqakhaneh movementThe Stars Art GroupTropicáliaYoru no KaiArtificial intelligence art 1970–1999 Post-conceptual artInstallation artArtscenePostminimalismEndurance artSots Art Moscow ConceptualistsPattern and DecorationPliontanismPunk artNeo-expressionism TransavantgardeSaint Soleil SchoolGuerrilla artLowbrow artTelematic artAppropriation artNeo-conceptual artNew European PaintingTunisian collaborative paintingMemphis GroupCyberdelicNeue Slowenische KunstScratch videoRetrofuturismYoung British ArtistsSuperfictionTaring PadiSuperflatNew Leipzig SchoolArtist-run initiativeArtivismThe Designers RepublicGrunge designVerdadism 2000– present Amazonian pop artAltermodernArt for artArt gameArt interventionBrandalismClassical RealismContemporary African art AfricanfuturismContemporary Indigenous Australian artCrypto artCyborg artExcessivismFictive artFlat design Corporate MemphisHypermodernismHyperrealismIdea artInternet art Post-InternetiPhone artKitsch movementLightpaintingMassurrealismModern European ink paintingNeo-futurismNeomodernNeosymbolismPassionismPost-YBAsRelational artSkeuomorphismSoftware artSound artStuckismSuperflat SoFlo SuperflatSuperstrokeToyismUnilalianismWalking Artists Network Related topics History of artAbstract art Asemic writingAnti-artAvant-gardeBallets RussesChristian art Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-ReformationCatholic artIconLutheran artDigital artFantastic artFolk artHierarchy of genres Genre paintingHistory paintingIlluminated manuscriptIllustrationInteractive artJewish artKitschLandscape paintingModernism Modern sculptureLate modernismNaïve artOutsider artPortraitPrehistoric European artQueer artRealismShock artTrompe-l'œilWestern painting  Category vte Historicism and Revivalism in architecture and decorative arts International Art DecoArt NouveauArts and CraftsBaroque RevivalBeaux-ArtsNeo-ByzantineCarpenter GothicEgyptian RevivalFrench ProvincialGothic RevivalGreek Revival / Neo-GrecMayan RevivalMoorish RevivalNeoclassicalNew ClassicalRenaissance Revival ChâteauesqueItalianatePalazzo styleRococo RevivalRomanesque RevivalSecond Empire FrenchEuropeanNorth AmericanSpanish Colonial RevivalSwiss chalet styleVernacular France Henry II styleHenry IV styleLouis XIII styleLouis XIV styleLouis XV styleLouis XVI styleNeoclassicismDirectoire styleEmpire styleLouis Philippe styleSecond Empire styleBelle Époque Germany, Austria-Hungary BiedermeierGründerzeitJugendstilNazi architectureResort styleRundbogenstil Great Britain AdamesqueBristol ByzantineEdwardian BaroqueEgyptian RevivalGeorgian RevivalIndo-Saracenic Revival British IndiaJacobethanNeo-PalladianQueen Anne RevivalRegencyRomanesque RevivalScottish BaronialTudor Revival / Black-and-white Revival Greece Mycenaean Revival Italy Stile Umbertino Netherlands Traditionalist School Nordic countries Dragon styleNational Romantic styleGustavian styleNordic Classicism Portugal Neo-ManuelineNeo-MudéjarSoft Portuguese style Poland Zakopane Style Romania Romanian Revival Russian Empire and USSR Neo-ByzantineNeoclassical RevivalRussian RevivalStalinist Serbia Serbo-Byzantine Revival Spain Neo-Mudéjar United States American RenaissanceCollegiate GothicColonial RevivalDutch Colonial RevivalFederal styleGreco DecoJeffersonianMediterranean RevivalMission RevivalPueblo RevivalPolish Cathedral styleQueen Anne styleRichardsonian RomanesqueTerritorial Revival Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata National GermanyIsraelUnited StatesJapanCzech Republic Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Categories: NeoclassicismNeoclassicism by genre18th century in art18th century in the arts19th century in art19th century in the artsAge of EnlightenmentArt movementsDecorative artsEarly modern periodNeoclassical architecture
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