BORIS JOHNSON Brexit Goldmünze Häuser des Parlaments London Europa Liz Truss UK

EUR 18,09 Sofort-Kaufen oder Preisvorschlag, EUR 6,95 Versand, 30-Tag Rücknahmen, eBay-Käuferschutz
Verkäufer: checkoutmyunqiuefunitems ✉️ (3.666) 99.9%, Artikelstandort: Manchester, Take a look at my other items, GB, Versand nach: WORLDWIDE, Artikelnummer: 276378096815 BORIS JOHNSON Brexit Goldmünze Häuser des Parlaments London Europa Liz Truss UK. The Realists' Party Jane Lawrence[721] 18 0.0 New. Hong Kong and China. 23 July 2019. Stephanie Macintyre (b. 2009). Chagos dispute. Liberal Democrats David Turner 12,101 26.0 –1.0. Wakefield, Jane (12 May 2021). Boris Johnson The Man Who Got Brexit Done Commemorative Coin + Brexit Card The Front of the gold plated brexit has a colour image of Boris Johnson Above the Houses of Parliment With a Faux Diamond Jewel Gem in the Clock of Big Ben With the Words "Boris Johnson" "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom" "The Man Who Got Brexit Done" The other side has the Union Jack Flah with a Lion with a torn EU flag in its mouth with the words "Brexit Day 30th January 2020" This also includes a Photo card of Boris Signing the Withdrawal agreement plus the back has a agreement with his signature The coin is 40mm in diameter, weighs about  1 oz The card is the size of a standard business card 55mm x 85mm Comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder. In Excellent Condition Gold Plated Coin Uncirculated Commemoration Coin Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake
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The Countries I Send to Include  Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL)  * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL)  * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) * North Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL)  * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL)  * Sint Maarten (NL)  * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe Boris Johnson The Right Honourable Boris Johnson MP Portrait photograph of a 55-year-old UK PM Boris Johnson Official portrait, 2019 Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Incumbent Assumed office 24 July 2019 Monarch    Elizabeth II Deputy    Dominic Raab[a] Preceded by    Theresa May Leader of the Conservative Party Incumbent Assumed office 23 July 2019 Preceded by    Theresa May Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs In office 13 July 2016 – 9 July 2018 Prime Minister    Theresa May Preceded by    Philip Hammond Succeeded by    Jeremy Hunt Mayor of London In office 3 May 2008 – 9 May 2016 Deputy         Richard Barnes     Victoria Borwick     Roger Evans Preceded by    Ken Livingstone Succeeded by    Sadiq Khan Member of Parliament for Uxbridge and South Ruislip Incumbent Assumed office 7 May 2015 Preceded by    John Randall Majority    7,210 (15.0%)[1] Member of Parliament for Henley In office 7 June 2001 – 4 June 2008 Preceded by    Michael Heseltine Succeeded by    John Howell Shadow ministerial posts 2004    Shadow Minister for the Arts 2005–2007    Shadow Minister for Higher Education Personal details Born    Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson 19 June 1964 (age 58) New York City, US Citizenship         United Kingdom     United States (until 2016)[2] Political party    Conservative Spouse(s)     Allegra Mostyn-Owen ​ ​ (1987⁠–⁠1993)​ Marina Wheeler ​ ​ (m. 1993; div. 2020)​ Carrie Symonds ​ (m. 2021)​ Children    7, including Lara Johnson-Wheeler[3][4] Parent(s)         Stanley Johnson (father)     Charlotte Fawcett (mother) Relatives         Rachel Johnson (sister)     Jo Johnson (brother)     Julia Johnson (half-sister)     James Fawcett (grandfather)     Edmund Fawcett (uncle)     Ali Kemal (great-grandfather)     Elias Avery Lowe (great-grandfather)     Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter (great-grandmother) Residence(s)         10 Downing Street, London     Chequers, Buckinghamshire Education    Eton College Alma mater    Balliol College, Oxford (BA) Signature     Website    Official website Writing career Genre    Non-fiction Notable works         Friends, Voters, Countrymen (2002)     Seventy-Two Virgins (2004)     The Dream of Rome (2006)     The Churchill Factor (2014) Prime Minister Boris Johnson Portrait (cropped).jpg      This article is part of a series about Boris Johnson     Political positions Electoral history     MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip MP for Henley Editor of The Spectator Mayor of London European Union referendum Foreign Secretary Party leadership campaign Prime Minister of the United Kingdom     Premiership International trips Minister for the Union First ministry and term Second ministry and term Bibliography In popular culture     vte Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson (/ˈfɛfəl/;[5] born 19 June 1964) is a British politician who has served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party since 2019. He announced his pending resignation on 7 July 2022 and will remain as prime minister until a new party leader is elected. He served as Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs from 2016 to 2018 and as Mayor of London from 2008 to 2016. Johnson has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Uxbridge and South Ruislip since 2015, having previously been MP for Henley from 2001 to 2008. Johnson attended Eton College and read Classics at Balliol College, Oxford. He was elected president of the Oxford Union in 1986. In 1989, he became the Brussels correspondent—and later political columnist—for The Daily Telegraph; and from 1999 to 2005 was editor of The Spectator. Following his election to parliament in 2001, Johnson was a shadow minister under Conservative leaders Michael Howard and David Cameron. In 2008, he was elected mayor of London and resigned from the House of Commons; he was re-elected as mayor in 2012. In the 2015 general election, Johnson was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip. The following year, he did not seek re-election as mayor. He became a prominent figure in the successful Vote Leave campaign for Brexit in the 2016 European Union (EU) membership referendum. Theresa May appointed him foreign secretary after the referendum; he resigned the position two years later in protest to the Chequers Agreement and May's approach to Brexit. In 2019, Johnson was elected Leader of the Conservative Party, defeating Jeremy Hunt. He re-opened Brexit negotiations and in early September controversially prorogued Parliament; the Supreme Court later that month ruled the action unlawful.[b] After agreeing to a revised Brexit withdrawal agreement, which replaced the Irish backstop with a new Northern Ireland Protocol, but failing to win parliamentary support for the agreement, Johnson called a snap election for December 2019 in which he led the Conservative Party to victory with 43.6 per cent of the vote, and the party's largest seat share since 1987. On 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU, entering into a transition period and trade negotiations leading to the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement. The cvid-19 pandemic became a major issue of his premiership; the government responded by introducing various emergency powers and measures across society to mitigate the pandemic's impact, and approved the rollout of a nationwide vaccination programme. In December 2021, a controversy known as "Partygate" began which concerned Johnson and other government officials attending social gatherings which breached cvid-19 regulations; Johnson received a fixed penalty notice, becoming the first prime minister of the United Kingdom to be sanctioned for a criminal action while in office. The publishing of the Sue Gray report and a widespread sense of dissatisfaction led in June 2022 to a vote of confidence in his leadership among Conservative MPs. While the parliamentary Conservative Party was found to have confidence in him, the result was regarded as having left Johnson politically weakened. In July 2022, revelations over his hiring of Chris Pincher as Government Deputy Chief Whip led to a mass resignation of ministers from his government and to Johnson announcing his forthcoming resignation as party leader. He remains in office in a caretaker capacity pending a leadership election. Johnson is a controversial figure in British politics.[7][8] Supporters have praised him as humorous, witty, and entertaining,[9] with an appeal stretching beyond traditional Conservative Party voters.[10][11] Conversely, his critics have accused him of lying, elitism, cronyism and bigotry.[12][13][14] Johnson's political positions have sometimes been described as following one-nation conservatism, and commentators have characterised his political style as opportunistic, populist, or pragmatic.[15][16][17] Early life Childhood Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson was born on 19 June 1964 in the Upper East Side of Manhattan, New York City,[18][19] to 23-year-old Stanley Johnson, then studying economics at Columbia University,[20] and 22-year-old Charlotte Fawcett,[21] an artist from a family of liberal intellectuals. Johnson's parents had married in 1963 before moving to the United States.[22] In September 1964, they returned to their native England, so that Charlotte could study at the University of Oxford;[23] during this time, she lived with her son in Summertown, a suburb of Oxford, and in 1965 she gave birth to a daughter, Rachel.[24] In July 1965, the family moved to Crouch End in north London,[25] and in February 1966 they relocated to Washington, D.C., where Stanley had gained employment with the World Bank.[26] Stanley then took a job with a policy panel on population control, and moved the family to Norwalk, Connecticut, in June.[27] A third child, Leo, was born in September 1967.[28] Ashdown House preparatory school, East Sussex, attended by Johnson from 1975 to 1977 In 1969, the family returned to England and settled into West Nethercote Farm, near Winsford in Somerset, Stanley's remote family home on Exmoor in the West Country.[29] There, Johnson gained his first experiences of fox hunting.[30] His father was regularly absent from Nethercote, leaving Johnson to be raised largely by his mother, assisted by au pairs.[31] As a child, Johnson was quiet and studious[25] and was deaf, resulting in several operations to insert grommets into his ears.[32] He and his siblings were encouraged to engage in highbrow activities from a young age,[33] with high achievement being greatly valued; Johnson's earliest recorded ambition was to be "world king".[34] Having few or no friends other than their siblings, the children became very close.[35] In late 1969, the family moved to Maida Vale in West London, while Stanley began post-graduate research at the London School of Economics.[36] In 1970, Charlotte and the children briefly returned to Nethercote, where Johnson attended Winsford Village School, before returning to London to settle in Primrose Hill,[37] where they were educated at Primrose Hill Primary School.[38] A fourth child and third son, Joseph, was born in late 1971.[39] After Stanley secured employment at the European Commission, he moved his family in April 1973 to Uccle, Brussels, where Johnson attended the European School, Brussels I and learnt to speak French.[40][41] Charlotte had a nervous breakdown and was hospitalised with clinical depression, after which Johnson and his siblings were sent back to England in 1975 to attend Ashdown House, a preparatory boarding school in East Sussex.[42] There, he developed a love of rugby and excelled at Ancient Greek and Latin,[43] but the teachers' use of corporal punishment appalled him.[44] Meanwhile, in December 1978 his parents' relationship broke down; they divorced in 1980,[45] and Charlotte moved into a flat in Notting Hill, West London, where her children joined her for much of their time.[46] Eton and Oxford: 1977–1987     As a kid I was extremely spotty, extremely nerdy and horribly swotty. My idea of a really good time was to travel across London on the tube to visit the British Museum. —Boris Johnson[47] Johnson gained a King's Scholarship to study at Eton College, a boarding school near Windsor in Berkshire.[48] Arriving in the autumn term of 1977,[49] he began using his middle name Boris rather than his first name Alexander,[50] and developed "the eccentric English persona" for which he became famous.[51] He abandoned his mother's Catholicism and became an Anglican, joining the Church of England.[52] School reports complained about his idleness, complacency and lateness,[53] but he was popular and well known at Eton.[51] His friends were largely from the wealthy upper-middle and upper classes, his best friends then being Darius Guppy and Charles Spencer, both of whom later accompanied him to the University of Oxford and remained friends into adulthood.[54] Johnson excelled in English and the Classics, winning prizes in both,[55] and became secretary of the school debating society,[56] and editor of the school newspaper, The Eton College Chronicle.[57] In late 1981, he was elected a member of Pop,[58] the small, self-selecting elite and glamorous group of prefects. Later in Johnson's career it was a point of rivalry with David Cameron, who had failed to enter Pop. On leaving Eton, Johnson went on a gap year to Australia, where he taught English and Latin at Timbertop, an Outward Bound-inspired campus of Geelong Grammar, an elite independent boarding school.[59][60][61] Johnson read Classics at Balliol College, Oxford. Johnson won a scholarship to read Literae Humaniores at Balliol College, Oxford, a four-year course in the study of the Classics, ancient literature and classical philosophy.[62] Matriculating at the university in late 1983,[63] he was one of a generation of Oxford undergraduates who were later to dominate British politics and media in the second decade of the 21st century; among them David Cameron, William Hague, Michael Gove, Jeremy Hunt and Nick Boles all went on to become senior Conservative Party politicians.[64] While at Oxford, Johnson participated in college rugby union, playing as a tighthead prop for Balliol College's team for four years.[65] To his later regret, he joined the Old Etonian-dominated Bullingdon Club, an exclusive drinking society notorious for acts of vandalism on host premises.[66][67][68] Many years later, a group photograph including himself and Cameron in Bullingdon Club formal dress led to much negative press coverage. He began a relationship with Allegra Mostyn-Owen, cover girl for Tatler magazine and daughter of Christie's Education chairman William Mostyn-Owen. She was a glamorous and popular fellow student from his own social background; they became engaged while at university.[69] Johnson was popular and well known at Oxford.[70] Alongside Guppy, he co-edited the university's satirical magazine Tributary.[71] In 1984, Johnson was elected secretary of the Oxford Union,[72] and campaigned unsuccessfully for the career-enhancing and important position of Union President.[73] In 1986, Johnson ran successfully for president,[74] but his term was not particularly distinguished or memorable[75] and questions were raised regarding his competence and seriousness.[76] Finally, Johnson was awarded an upper second-class degree,[77][78] and was deeply unhappy he did not receive a first.[79] Early career The Times and The Daily Telegraph: 1987–1994     I saw the whole [European Union] change. It was a wonderful time to be there. The Berlin Wall fell and the French and Germans had to decide how they were going to respond to this event, and what was Europe going to become, and there was this fantastic pressure to create a single polity, to create an answer to the historic German problem, and this produced the most fantastic strains in the Conservative Party, so everything I wrote from Brussels, I found was sort of chucking these rocks over the garden wall and I listened to this amazing crash from the greenhouse next door over in England as everything I wrote from Brussels was having this amazing, explosive effect on the Tory party, and it really gave me this I suppose rather weird sense of power. –Boris Johnson[80] In September 1987, Johnson and Mostyn-Owen were married in West Felton, Shropshire, accompanied by a duet for violin and viola Allegra e Boris[81] specially commissioned for the wedding from Hans Werner Henze.[82] After a honeymoon in Egypt, they settled in West Kensington, West London,[83] when he secured work for a management consultancy company, L.E.K. Consulting; he resigned after a week.[84] In late 1987, through family connections, he began work as a graduate trainee at The Times.[85] Scandal erupted when Johnson wrote an article for the newspaper, on the archaeological discovery of Edward II's palace, having invented a quote for the article which he falsely attributed to the historian Colin Lucas, his godfather. After the editor Charles Wilson learnt of the matter, he dismissed Johnson.[86] Johnson secured employment on the leader-writing desk of The Daily Telegraph, having met its editor, Max Hastings, during his Oxford University Union presidency.[87] His articles appealed to the newspaper's conservative, middle-class, middle-aged "Middle England" readership,[88] and were known for their distinctive literary style, replete with old-fashioned words and phrases and for regularly referring to the readership as "my friends".[89] In early 1989, Johnson was appointed to the newspaper's Brussels bureau to report on the European Commission,[90] remaining in the post until 1994.[91] A strong critic of the integrationist Commission President Jacques Delors, he established himself as one of the city's few Eurosceptic journalists.[92] He wrote articles about euromyths such as the EU wanting to ban prawn cocktail crisps and British sausages and standardise condom sizes because Italians had smaller penises.[93] He wrote that Brussels had recruited sniffers to ensure that Euro-manure smells the same,[94] and that the Eurocrats were about to dictate the acceptable curve of bananas[c] and the limits on the power of vacuum cleaners,[96][d] and to order women to return their old sex toys.[94] He wrote that euro notes made people impotent, that euro coins made people sick, and that a plan to blow up the Berlaymont was in place because asbestos cladding made the building too dangerous to inhabit.[94] Many of his fellow journalists there were critical of his articles, opining they often contained lies designed to discredit the commission.[99] The Europhile Conservative politician Chris Patten later stated at that time Johnson was "one of the greatest exponents of fake journalism".[91] Johnson opposed banning handguns after the Dunblane school massacre writing in his column "Nanny is confiscating their toys. It is like one of those vast Indian programmes of compulsory vasectomy."[100] Johnson biographer Andrew Gimson believed these articles made him "one of [Euroscepticism's] most famous exponents".[80] According to later biographer Sonia Purnell—who was Johnson's Brussels deputy[91]—he helped make Euroscepticism "an attractive and emotionally resonant cause for the Right", whereas it had been associated previously with the British Left.[101] Johnson's articles established him as the favourite journalist of the Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher,[102] but Johnson annoyed her successor, the Europhile John Major, who spent a great deal of time attempting to refute what Johnson said.[103] Johnson's articles exacerbated tensions between the Conservative Party's Eurosceptic and Europhile factions. As a result, he earned the mistrust of many party members.[104] His writings were also a key influence on the emergence of the EU-opposing UK Independence Party (UKIP) in the early 1990s.[101] Conrad Black, then proprietor of The Daily Telegraph, said Johnson "was such an effective correspondent for us in Brussels that he greatly influenced British opinion on this country's relations with Europe".[105] In February 1990, Johnson's wife Allegra left him; after several attempts at reconciliation, their marriage ended in April 1993.[106][107] He then entered a relationship with a childhood friend, Marina Wheeler, who had moved to Brussels in 1990,[108] and in May 1993, they were married at Horsham in Sussex,[109] soon after which Marina gave birth to a daughter.[110] Johnson and his new wife settled in Islington, North London,[111] an area known as the home of the left-liberal intelligentsia. Under the influence of this milieu, and of his wife, Johnson moved in a more liberal direction on issues like climate change, LGBT rights and race relations.[112] While in Islington, the couple had three more children, all given the surname Johnson-Wheeler.[113] They were sent to the local Canonbury Primary School and then to private secondary schools.[114] Devoting much time to his children, Johnson wrote a book of verse, Perils of the Pushy Parents – A Cautionary Tale, which was published to largely poor reviews.[115] Political columnist: 1994–1999 Back in London, Hastings turned down Johnson's request to become a war reporter,[116] instead promoting him to the position of assistant editor and chief political columnist.[117] Johnson's column received praise for being ideologically eclectic and distinctively written, and earned him a Commentator of the Year Award at the What the Papers Say awards.[118] Some critics condemned his writing style as bigotry; in various columns he used the words "piccaninnies" and "watermelon smiles" when referring to Africans, championed European colonialism in Uganda[119][120][121] and referred to gay men as "tank-topped bumboys".[122] Contemplating a political career, in 1993, Johnson outlined his desire to stand as a Conservative candidate to be a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in the 1994 European Parliament elections. Andrew Mitchell convinced Major not to veto Johnson's candidacy, but Johnson could not find a constituency.[123] He subsequently turned his attention to obtaining a seat in the UK House of Commons. After being rejected as Conservative candidate for Holborn and St. Pancras, his party selected him the candidate for Clwyd South in north Wales, then a Labour Party safe seat. Spending six weeks campaigning, he attained 9,091 votes (23 per cent) in the 1997 general election, losing to the Labour candidate.[124] Scandal erupted in June 1995 when a recording of a 1990 telephone conversation between Johnson and his friend Darius Guppy was made public.[125] In the conversation, Guppy said that his criminal activities involving insurance fraud were being investigated by News of the World journalist Stuart Collier, and he asked Johnson to provide him with Collier's private address, seeking to have the latter beaten to the extent of "a couple of black eyes and a cracked rib or something like that". Johnson agreed to supply the information, although he expressed concern that he would be associated with the attack.[125] When the phone conversation was published in 1995, Johnson stated that ultimately he had not obliged Guppy's request. Hastings reprimanded Johnson but did not dismiss him.[125] Johnson was given a regular column in The Spectator, sister publication to The Daily Telegraph, which attracted mixed reviews and was often thought rushed.[126] In 1999, he was also given a column reviewing new cars in the magazine GQ.[127] His behaviour regularly disgruntled his editors; the large number of parking fines that Johnson acquired while testing cars frustrated GQ staff.[122] At The Daily Telegraph and The Spectator, he was consistently late delivering his copy, forcing many staff to stay late to accommodate him; some related that if they published without his work included, he would get angry and shout at them with expletives.[128] Johnson's appearance on an April 1998 episode of the BBC's satirical current affairs show Have I Got News for You brought him national fame.[129] He was invited back on to later episodes, including as a guest presenter; for his 2003 appearance, Johnson received a nomination for the BAFTA Television Award for Best Entertainment Performance.[130][131] After these appearances, he came to be recognised on the street by the public, and was invited to appear on other television shows, such as Top Gear, Parkinson, Breakfast with Frost, and the political show Question Time.[132] The Spectator and MP for Henley: 1999–2008 Johnson in 2007 In July 1999, Conrad Black offered Johnson the editorship of The Spectator on the condition he abandon his parliamentary aspirations; Johnson agreed.[133] While retaining The Spectator's traditional right-wing bent, Johnson welcomed contributions from leftist writers and cartoonists.[134] Under Johnson's editorship, the magazine's circulation grew by 10% to 62,000 and it began to turn a profit.[135] His editorship also drew criticism; some opined that under him The Spectator avoided serious issues,[136] while colleagues became annoyed that he was regularly absent from the office, meetings, and events.[137] He gained a reputation as a poor political pundit because of incorrect political predictions made in the magazine.[136] His father-in-law Charles Wheeler and others strongly criticised him for allowing Spectator columnist Taki Theodoracopulos to publish racist and antisemitic language in the magazine.[138][139] Journalist Charlotte Edwardes wrote in The Times in 2019 alleging that Johnson had squeezed her thigh at a private lunch in the offices of the Spectator in 1999 and that another woman had told her he had done the same to her. A Downing Street spokesman denied the allegation.[140][141] In 2004, Johnson published an editorial in The Spectator after the murder of Ken Bigley suggesting that Liverpudlians were wallowing in their victim status and also "hooked on grief" over the Hillsborough disaster, which Johnson partly blamed on "drunken fans".[142][143] In an appendix added to a later edition of his 2005 book about the Roman empire, The Dream of Rome, Tell MAMA and the Muslim Council of Britain strongly criticised Johnson for arguing Islam has caused the Muslim world to be "literally centuries behind" the West.[144] Becoming an MP     The selection of Boris Johnson ... confirms the Tory Party's increasing weakness for celebrity personalities over the dreary exigencies of politics. Johnson, for all his gifts, is unlikely to grace any future Tory cabinet. Indeed, he is not known for his excessive interest in serious policy matters, and it is hard to see him grubbing away at administrative detail as an obscure, hardworking junior minister for social security. To maintain his funny man reputation he will no doubt find himself refining his Bertie Wooster interpretation to the point where the impersonation becomes the man. –Max Hastings, London Evening Standard, [145] Following Michael Heseltine's retirement, Johnson decided to stand as Conservative candidate for Henley, a Conservative safe seat in Oxfordshire.[146] The local Conservative branch selected him although it was split over Johnson's candidacy. Some thought him amusing and charming while others disliked his flippant attitude and lack of knowledge of the local area.[147] Boosted by his television fame, Johnson won the seat in the 2001 general election with a majority of 8,500 votes.[148] Alongside his Islington home, Johnson bought a farmhouse outside Thame in his new constituency.[149] He regularly attended Henley social events and occasionally wrote for the Henley Standard.[150] His constituency surgeries proved popular, and he joined local campaigns to stop the closure of Townlands Hospital and the local air ambulance.[151] In Parliament, Johnson was appointed to a standing committee assessing the Proceeds of Crime Bill, but missed many of its meetings.[152] Despite his credentials as a public speaker, his speeches in the House of Commons were widely deemed lacklustre; Johnson later called them "crap".[153] In his first four years as MP, he attended just over half of the Commons votes; in his second term, this declined to 45 per cent.[154] He usually supported the Conservative party line but rebelled against it five times in this period.[155] In free votes, he demonstrated a more socially liberal attitude than many colleagues, supporting the Gender Recognition Act 2004 and the repeal of Section 28.[156][157] However, in 2001, Johnson had spoken out against plans to repeal Section 28, saying it was "Labour's appalling agenda, encouraging the teaching of homosexuality in schools".[158][159] After initially stating he would not, he voted in support of the government's plans to join the US in the 2003 invasion of Iraq,[149] and in April 2003 visited occupied Baghdad.[160] In August 2004, he backed unsuccessful impeachment procedures against Prime Minister Tony Blair for "high crimes and misdemeanours" regarding the war,[161] and in December 2006 described the invasion as "a colossal mistake and misadventure".[162] Although labelling Johnson "ineffably duplicitous" for breaking his promise not to become an MP, Black decided not to dismiss him because he "helped promote the magazine and raise its circulation".[163] Johnson remained editor of The Spectator, also writing columns for The Daily Telegraph and GQ, and making television appearances.[164] His 2001 book, Friends, Voters, Countrymen: Jottings on the Stump, recounted that year's election campaign,[165] while 2003's Lend Me Your Ears collected together previously published columns and articles.[166] In 2004, Harper Collins published his first novel: Seventy-Two Virgins: A Comedy of Errors revolved around the life of a Conservative MP and contained various autobiographical elements.[167] Responding to critics who argued he was juggling too many jobs, he cited Winston Churchill and Benjamin Disraeli as exemplars who combined their political and literary careers.[168] To manage the stress, he took up jogging and cycling,[169] and became so well known for the latter that Gimson suggested he was "perhaps the most famous cyclist in Britain".[170] Following William Hague's resignation as Conservative leader, Johnson backed Kenneth Clarke, regarding Clarke as the only candidate capable of winning a general election; the party elected Iain Duncan Smith.[171] Johnson had a strained relationship with Duncan Smith, and The Spectator became critical of his party leadership.[172] Duncan Smith was removed from his position in November 2003 and replaced by Michael Howard; Howard deemed Johnson to be the most popular Conservative politician with the electorate and appointed him vice-chairman of the party, responsible for overseeing its electoral campaign.[173] In his Shadow Cabinet reshuffle of May 2004, Howard appointed Johnson to the position of shadow arts minister.[174] In October, Howard ordered Johnson to apologise publicly in Liverpool for publishing a Spectator article—anonymously written by Simon Heffer – which said the crowds at the Hillsborough disaster had contributed towards the incident and that Liverpudlians had a predilection for reliance on the welfare state.[175][176] In November 2004, tabloids revealed that since 2000 Johnson had been having an affair with Spectator columnist Petronella Wyatt, resulting in two terminated pregnancies. Johnson initially called the claims "an inverted pyramid of piffle".[177] After the allegations were proven, Howard asked Johnson to resign as vice-chairman and shadow arts minister for publicly lying; when Johnson refused, Howard dismissed him from those positions.[178][179] In July 2005, Who's the Daddy?, a play by The Spectator's theatre critics Toby Young and Lloyd Evans being performed at Islington's King's Head Theatre, satirised the scandal.[180] Second term As Shadow Minister for Higher Education, Johnson visited various universities (as here at the University of Nottingham in 2006) In the 2005 general election, Johnson was re-elected MP for Henley, increasing his majority to 12,793.[181] Labour won the election and Howard stood down as Conservative leader; Johnson backed David Cameron as his successor.[182] After Cameron was elected, he appointed Johnson as the shadow higher education minister, acknowledging his popularity among students.[183] Interested in streamlining university funding,[184] Johnson supported Labour's proposed top-up fees.[185] He campaigned in 2006 to become the Rector of the University of Edinburgh, but his support for top-up fees damaged his campaign, and he came third.[186][187] In April 2006, the News of the World alleged that Johnson was having an affair with the journalist Anna Fazackerley; the pair did not comment, and shortly afterwards Johnson began employing Fazackerley.[188][189] That month, he attracted further public attention for rugby-tackling former footballer Maurizio Gaudino in a charity football match.[190] In September 2006, Papua New Guinea's High Commission protested after he compared the Conservatives' frequently changing leadership to cannibalism in Papua New Guinea.[191] In 2005, The Spectator's new chief executive, Andrew Neil, dismissed Johnson as editor.[192] To make up for this loss of income, Johnson negotiated with The Daily Telegraph to raise his annual fee from £200,000 to £250,000, averaging at £5,000 per column, each of which took up around an hour and a half of his time.[193][194] He presented a popular history television show, The Dream of Rome, which was broadcast in January 2006; a book followed in February.[195] A sequel, After Rome, focused on early Islamic history.[196] As a result of his various activities, in 2007, he earned £540,000, making him the UK's third-highest-earning MP that year.[197] Mayor of London (2008–2016) Main article: Mayoralty of Boris Johnson Mayoral election: 2007–2008 Main article: 2008 London mayoral election See also: 2007 London Conservative Party mayoral selection In July 2007, Johnson announced his candidacy to be the Conservative candidate for Mayor of London in the 2008 mayoral election.[198][199] In September, he was selected after gaining 79 per cent of the vote in a public London-wide primary.[200][201] Johnson pledged to replace the city's articulated buses with New Routemaster buses if elected mayor Johnson's mayoral campaign focused on reducing youth crime, making public transport safer, and replacing the articulated buses with an updated version of the AEC Routemaster.[11] Targeting the Conservative-leaning suburbs of outer London, it capitalised on perceptions that the Labour Mayoralty had neglected them in favour of inner London.[202] His campaign emphasised his popularity, even among those who opposed his policies,[203] with opponents complaining a common attitude among voters was: "I'm voting for Boris because he is a laugh."[11] The campaign of Labour incumbent Ken Livingstone portrayed Johnson as an out-of-touch toff and bigot, citing racist and homophobic language used in his columns; Johnson responded these quotes had been taken out of context and were meant as satire.[204] In the election, Johnson received 43% and Livingstone 37% of first-preference votes; when second-preference votes were added, Johnson proved victorious with 53% to Livingstone's 47%.[205][206] Johnson then announced his resignation as MP for Henley.[207][208] First term: 2008–2012 Settling into the City Hall mayoral office,[209] Johnson's first official engagement was an appearance at the Sikh celebrations for Vaisakhi in Trafalgar Square.[210] Rather than bringing a team of assistants with him to the job as Livingstone had done, Johnson built his team over the following six months.[211] Those in City Hall who were deemed too closely allied to Livingstone's administration had their employment terminated.[212] Johnson appointed Tim Parker to be first Deputy Mayor, but after Parker began taking increasing control at City Hall and insisted that all staff report directly to him, Johnson dismissed him.[213] Because of these problems, many in the Conservative Party initially distanced themselves from Johnson's administration, fearing it would be counterproductive to achieving a Conservative victory in the 2010 general election.[214] Johnson gave a victory speech in City Hall after being elected as the Mayor of London Johnson received criticism during the early weeks of his administration, largely because he was late for two official functions in his first week on the job, and because after three weeks he went on holiday to Turkey.[212] In July 2008, Johnson visited the closing ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, there offending his Chinese hosts with his attire.[215] During the electoral campaign, Johnson had confided to Brian Paddick he was unsure how he would maintain his lifestyle while relying upon the mayoral salary of £140,000 a year.[216] To resolve this problem, he agreed to continue his Daily Telegraph column alongside his mayoral job, thus earning a further £250,000 a year.[217] His team believed this would cause controversy and made him promise to donate a fifth of his Daily Telegraph fee to a charitable cause providing bursaries for students. Johnson resented this, and ultimately did not pay a full fifth.[218] Controversy erupted when he was questioned about his Daily Telegraph fee on BBC's HARDtalk; there, he referred to the £250,000 as "chicken feed", something that was widely condemned, given that this was roughly 10 times the average yearly wage for a British worker.[219][220][221] Johnson at the opening of NASDAQ in 2009 During his first administration, Johnson was embroiled in several personal scandals. After moving to a new house in Islington, he built a shed on his balcony without obtaining planning permission; after neighbours complained, he dismantled it.[222] The press also accused him of having an affair with Helen Macintyre and of fathering her child, allegations that he did not deny.[223][224][225][226] Controversy arose when Johnson was accused of warning the MP Damian Green that police were planning to arrest him; Johnson denied the claims and did not face criminal charges under the Criminal Justice Act.[227] He was accused of cronyism,[228] in particular for appointing Veronica Wadley, a former Evening Standard editor who had supported him, as the chair of London's Arts Council when she was widely regarded as not being the best candidate for the position.[229][230][231] He was caught up in the parliamentary expenses scandal and accused of excessive personal spending on taxi journeys. His deputy mayor Ian Clement was found to have misused a City Hall credit card, resulting in his resignation.[232] Johnson remained a popular figure in London with a strong celebrity status.[233] In 2009, he rescued Franny Armstrong from anti-social teenagers who had threatened her while he was cycling past them.[234][235][236] Policies The New Routemaster bus introduced by Johnson's administration Johnson made no major changes to the mayoral system Livingstone developed.[237] He reversed several measures implemented by Livingstone's administration, ending the city's oil deal with Venezuela, abolishing The Londoner newsletter, and scrapping the half-yearly inspections of black cabs, which was reinstated three years later.[238] Abolishing the western wing of the congestion charging zone,[239] he cancelled plans to increase the congestion charge for four-wheel-drive vehicles.[240] He was subsequently accused of failing to publish an independent report on air pollution commissioned by the Greater London Authority, which revealed the city breached legal limits on nitrogen dioxide levels.[241][242] Johnson retained Livingstone projects such as Crossrail and the 2012 Olympic Games, but was accused of trying to take credit for them.[243] He introduced a public bicycle scheme that had been mooted by Livingstone's administration; colloquially known as "Boris Bikes", the part privately financed system cost £140 million and was a significant financial loss but proved popular.[244][245] Despite Johnson's support of cycling in London, and his much-publicised identity as a cyclist, some cycling groups who argued he had failed to make the city's roads safer for cyclists criticised his administration.[246] As per his election pledge, he commissioned the development of the New Routemaster buses for central London.[247] He also ordered the construction of a cable car system that crossed the River Thames between Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks.[248] Johnson implemented Livingstone's idea of a public bicycle system; the result was dubbed the "Boris Bike". Johnson's first policy initiative was a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport.[249][250] At the beginning of his tenure as mayor, Johnson announced plans to extend pay-as-you-go Oyster cards to national rail services in London.[251] A pledge in Johnson's election manifesto was to retain Tube ticket offices, in opposition to Livingstone's proposal to close up to 40 London Underground ticket offices.[252] On 2 July 2008, the Mayor's office announced the closure plan was to be abandoned and that offices would remain open.[253] On 21 November 2013, Transport for London announced that all London Underground ticket offices would close by 2015.[254] In financing these projects, Johnson's administration borrowed £100 million,[255] while public transport fares were increased by 50 per cent.[256] During his first Mayoral term, Johnson was perceived as having moved leftward on certain issues, for instance, supporting the London Living Wage and endorsing an amnesty for illegal migrants.[257] He tried placating critics who had deemed him a bigot by appearing at London's gay pride parade and praising ethnic minority newspapers.[258] In 2012, he banned London buses from displaying the adverts of Core Issues Trust, a Christian group, which compared homosexuality to an illness.[259] In August 2008, Johnson broke from the traditional protocol of those in public office not publicly commenting on other nations' elections by endorsing Barack Obama for the presidency of the United States.[260][261] Relations with police, finance, and the media Johnson's response to the 2011 London riots was criticised Johnson appointed himself chair of the Metropolitan Police Authority (MPA), and in October 2008 successfully pushed for the resignation of Metropolitan Police Commissioner Ian Blair after the latter was criticised for allegedly handing contracts to friends and for his handling of the death of Jean Charles de Menezes.[262][263][264] This earned Johnson great respect among Conservatives, who interpreted it as his first act of strength.[265] Johnson resigned as MPA chairman in January 2010,[257] but throughout his mayoralty was highly supportive of the Metropolitan Police, particularly during the controversy surrounding the death of Ian Tomlinson.[266] Overall crime in London fell during his administration, but his claim that serious youth crime had decreased proved to be false, and he acknowledged the error.[267][268] Similarly, his claim that Metropolitan Police numbers had increased was characterised as untrue,[267] but the fact-checkers at Full Fact felt that both Johnson's and his critics' positions are defensible.[269] He was criticised for his response to the 2011 London riots; holidaying with his family in British Columbia when the rioting broke out, he did not return immediately to London, only doing so 48 hours after it had begun and addressing Londoners 60 hours thereafter. Upon visiting shopkeepers and residents affected by the riots in Clapham, elements within the crowds booed and jeered him.[270] Johnson lights the flame at the 2010 London Youth Games opening ceremony Johnson championed London's financial sector and denounced what he saw as "banker bashing" following the financial crisis of 2007–08,[271] condemning the anti-capitalist Occupy London movement that appeared in 2011.[272] He spent much time with those involved in the financial services and criticised the government's 50p tax rate for higher earners.[273] He collected donations from the city's wealthy for a charitable enterprise, the Mayor's Fund, which he had established to aid disadvantaged youths. It initially announced the fund would raise £100 million, but by 2010 it had only spent £1.5 million.[274] He also maintained extensive personal contacts throughout the British media,[275] which resulted in widespread favourable press coverage of his administration.[275] In turn he remained largely supportive of his friends in the media—among them Rupert Murdoch—during the News International phone hacking scandal.[276] The formation of the Forensic Audit Panel was announced on 8 May 2008. The panel was tasked with monitoring and investigating financial management at the London Development Agency and the Greater London Authority.[277] Johnson's announcement was criticised by Labour for the perceived politicisation of this nominally independent panel, who asked whether the appointment of key Johnson allies to the panel – "to dig dirt on Ken Livingstone" – was "an appropriate use of public funds".[278] The head of the panel, Patience Wheatcroft, was married to a Conservative councillor[279] and three of the four remaining panel members also had close links to the Conservatives: Stephen Greenhalgh (Conservative Leader of Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council),[280] Patrick Frederick (Chairman of Conservative Business Relations for South East England and Southern London), and Edward Lister (Conservative Leader of Wandsworth London Borough Council).[281] Re-election campaign Up for re-election in 2012, Johnson again hired Crosby to orchestrate his campaign.[282] Before the election, Johnson published Johnson's Life of London, a work of popular history that the historian A. N. Wilson characterised as a "coded plea" for votes.[283] Polls suggested that while Livingstone's approach to transport was preferred, voters in London placed greater trust in Johnson over issues of crime and the economy.[284] During the 2012 Mayoral election, Johnson sought re-election, while Livingstone was selected as the Labour candidate again. Johnson's campaign emphasised the accusation that Livingstone was guilty of tax evasion, for which Livingstone called Johnson a "bare-faced liar".[285] The political scientist Andrew Crines believed that Livingstone's campaign focused on criticising Johnson rather than presenting an alternate and progressive vision of London's future.[286] In 2012, Johnson was re-elected as mayor.[287] Second term: 2012–2016 Johnson at the 2012 Summer Olympics London was successful in its bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics while Ken Livingstone was still mayor in 2005. Johnson's role in the proceedings was as the co-chair of an Olympic board which oversaw the games.[288] Two of his actions after taking on this role were to improve transportation around London by making more tickets available and laying on more buses around the capital during the busy period, when thousands of spectators were temporary visitors in London.[289][290] Johnson was accused of covering up pollution ahead of the games by deploying dust suppressants to remove air particulates near monitoring stations.[241] In November 2013, Johnson announced major changes to the operation of London Underground, including the extension of operating hours to run through the night at weekends. All staffed ticket offices would be closed to save over £40 million a year and replaced with automated ticketing systems.[291][292] Johnson had a close friendship with American technology entrepreneur, former DJ[293] and model Jennifer Arcuri, with The Sunday Times describing him as a regular visitor to her flat,[294] and implying they were in a sexual relationship.[295] In 2013, a mayoral fund awarded her company, Innotech, £10,000, followed the next year by Arcuri being awarded £15,000 from a government programme. Johnson intervened to allow her onto three trade mission trips.[296] The Sunday Times said in September 2019 that Johnson failed to declare his personal relationship as a conflict of interest.[297] Later that month, the Greater London Authority referred Johnson and his actions in the matter to the Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC) "so it can assess whether or not it is necessary to investigate the former mayor of London for the criminal offence of misconduct in public office". The IOPC was involved because the Mayor is also London's police and crime commissioner.[298] The London Assembly began its own investigation but paused it at the IOPC's request to avoid overlap. On 9 November 2019 it was revealed that the IOPC, which had been due to publish a report on its investigation, had decided to do so after the general election of 12 December.[299] The IOPC issued its report in May 2020, concluding that, although there was no basis for any criminal charge, there was evidence that the close relationship between Johnson and Arcuri had influenced decisions by officials. The report found Johnson should have declared an interest concerning Arcuri and that his failure to do this could have breached the London Assembly's code of conduct. On behalf of the London Assembly, the chair of its Greater London Authority Oversight Committee said the committee would now resume its own investigation.[300] In February 2012, Johnson criticised London's Saint Patrick's Day gala dinner celebrations, linking them to Sinn Féin and branding the event "Lefty crap";[301] for which he later apologised.[302] In February 2013, during a London Assembly meeting following the publication of London's 2014, Johnson was ejected from the meeting following a vote and because his deputy Victoria Borwick had left the chamber. Realising that the vote meant he would not be questioned on the budget, Johnson referred to his political opponents as "great supine protoplasmic invertebrate jellies".[303] Johnson attended the launch of the World Islamic Economic Forum in London in July 2013, where he answered questions alongside Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak. He joked that Malaysian women attended university to find husbands, causing some offence among female attendees.[304][305] In 2014, Johnson published his biography of Winston Churchill, The Churchill Factor. The media emphasised how Johnson repeatedly compared himself to Churchill throughout the book.[306] During campaigning in 2016, he said there was an attempt to create the Roman Empire's united Europe. He said, "Napoleon, Hitler, various people tried this out, and it ends tragically. The EU is an attempt to do this by different methods."[307][308] Also in 2014, he was criticised for saying that "almost half" of his senior staff were female, when London Assembly members stated that only four of fourteen top positions in Johnson's administration were occupied by women.[309] In 2015, Johnson criticised then-presidential candidate Donald Trump's false comments that there were no-go zones in London governed by shariah and inaccessible for non-Muslims. Johnson said Trump was "betraying a quite stupefying ignorance that makes him, frankly, unfit to hold the office of president of the United States",[310] becoming the first senior politician in the UK to declare Trump unfit for office (but rejecting calls for him to be banned from the country).[311] Johnson added that he "would invite [Trump] to come and see the whole of London and take him round the city – except I wouldn't want to expose Londoners to any unnecessary risk of meeting Donald Trump".[310] He later called Trump's comments "ill informed" and "complete and utter nonsense", adding that "the only reason I wouldn't go to some parts of New York is the real risk of meeting Donald Trump".[312] In 2016, he said he was "genuinely worried that he could become president", telling ITV's Tom Bradby of one moment where he was mistaken for Trump in New York as "one of the worst moments" of his life.[313] Johnson did not run for a third term for Mayor of London and stepped down on 5 May 2016 following the election of former transport minister, Sadiq Khan. Johnson left office still popular with the people of London. A YouGov poll commissioned at the end of his term revealed that 52% of Londoners believed he did a "good job" as Mayor of London while only 29% believed he did a "bad job".[314] In 2016, Sadiq Khan announced that three German-made water cannon, which Johnson had bought for the Metropolitan Police without waiting for clearance from the then-Home Secretary Theresa May, were to be sold off with the funds going to youth services.[315] The vehicles proved unsellable and were eventually sold for scrap in 2018 at a £300,000 loss.[316] Return to Parliament Johnson initially said that he would not return to the House of Commons while remaining mayor.[233] After much media speculation, in August 2014 he sought selection as the Conservative candidate for the safe seat of Uxbridge and South Ruislip at the 2015 general election,[317] becoming the party's candidate in September.[318][319] In the May 2015 general election, Johnson was elected MP. There was much speculation that he had returned to Parliament because he wanted to replace Cameron as Conservative leader and prime minister.[320] Brexit campaign: 2015–2016 Portrait of Boris Johnson, 2016 In February 2016, Johnson endorsed Vote Leave in the "Out" campaign for the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum.[321] He called Cameron's warnings about leaving "greatly over exaggerated". Following this announcement, which was interpreted by financial markets as making Brexit more probable, the pound sterling slumped by nearly 2% against the US dollar, reaching its lowest level since March 2009.[322] In April 2016, in an article for The Sun, in response to a comment by President Barack Obama that Britain should remain in the European Union, Johnson said an "ancestral dislike" of Britain owing to his "part-Kenyan" background may have shaped Obama's views.[307] Conservative MP Sir Nicholas Soames branded the comments "idiotic" and "deeply offensive".[323] Several Labour and Liberal Democrat politicians condemned them as racist and unacceptable.[324][325] In light of the remark, a King's College London student society revoked a speaking invitation it had extended to him.[326] Conversely, both the Conservative Iain Duncan Smith and UK Independence Party (UKIP) leader Nigel Farage defended his comments.[324][327] Johnson supported Vote Leave's statement that the government was committed to Turkish accession to the EU at the earliest possible opportunity, contradicting the Britain Stronger in Europe campaign's view that Turkey "is not an issue in this referendum and it shouldn't be". Vote Leave was accused of implying that 80 million Turks would come to the UK if it stayed in the EU. When interviewed in January 2019, he said he had not mentioned Turkey during the campaign.[328][329] On 22 June 2016, Johnson declared 23 June could be "Britain's independence day" in a televised debate in front of a 6,000-member audience at Wembley Arena.[330] David Cameron, British prime minister at the time, specifically addressed Johnson's claim, publicly stating, "the idea that our country isn't independent is nonsense. This whole debate demonstrates our sovereignty."[331] Following the victory of the "Leave" campaign, Cameron resigned as Conservative leader and prime minister. Johnson was widely regarded as the front-runner to succeed him.[332][333] Johnson announced he would not stand in the Conservative leadership election.[334] Shortly before, Michael Gove, hitherto a Johnson ally, concluded that Johnson "cannot provide the leadership or build the team for the task ahead".[335][336] The Daily Telegraph called Gove's comments "the most spectacular political assassination in a generation".[337] Johnson endorsed Andrea Leadsom's candidature,[338] but she dropped out of the race a week later, leaving Theresa May to be elected uncontested. Foreign Secretary: 2016–2018 Johnson with US President Donald Trump in 2017 UNGA Johnson visited the British Virgin Islands after Hurricane Irma After Theresa May had become Conservative Party leader and prime minister, she appointed Johnson Foreign Secretary in July 2016.[339] Analysts saw the appointment as a tactic to weaken Johnson politically: the new positions of "Brexit secretary" and international trade secretary left the foreign secretary as a figurehead with few powers.[339][340] Johnson's appointment ensured he would often be out of the country and unable to organise and mobilise backbenchers against her, while forcing him to take responsibility for problems caused by withdrawing from the EU.[341][342] Some journalists and foreign politicians criticised Johnson's appointment because of his history of controversial statements about other countries.[343][344][345] His tenure in the role attracted criticism from diplomats and foreign policy experts.[346][347] A number of diplomats, FCO staff and foreign ministers who worked with Johnson compared his leadership unfavourably to previous foreign secretaries for his perceived lack of conviction or substantive positions on British foreign policy issues.[346][347] Former Swedish prime minister Carl Bildt said: "I wish it was a joke."[348] A senior official in Obama's government suggested Johnson's appointment would push the US further towards Germany at the expense of the Special Relationship with the UK.[349] On one occasion Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi walked out of a meeting with Johnson after a meeting did not "get beyond the pleasantries".[346] Johnson's visit to Turkey from 25 to 27 September 2016 was somewhat tense because he had won Douglas Murray's offensive poetry competition about the President of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, four months earlier.[350] When questioned by a journalist whether he would apologise for the poem, Johnson dismissed the matter as "trivia".[351] Johnson pledged to help Turkey join the EU and expressed support for Erdogan's government.[352] Johnson supported the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and refused to block UK arms sales to Saudi Arabia,[353] stating there was no clear evidence of breaches of international humanitarian law by Saudi Arabia in the war in Yemen.[354] In September 2016, human rights groups accused him of blocking the UN inquiry into Saudi war crimes in Yemen.[355] Given the UK-Saudi alliance, in December, he attracted attention for commenting the Saudis were akin to the Iranians in "puppeteering and playing proxy wars" throughout the Middle East.[356][357][358] May said his comments did not represent the government's view.[359] In November 2017, Johnson told the Foreign Affairs Select Committee that Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe—a British-Iranian dual citizen serving a five-year prison sentence in Iran after being arrested for training citizen journalists and bloggers in a BBC World Service Trust project—had been "simply teaching people journalism". Zaghari-Ratcliffe had said that her visit had been made simply for her daughter to meet her grandparents. Facing criticism, Johnson stated he had been misquoted and that nothing he said had justified Zaghari-Ratcliffe's sentence.[360][361] In May 2018, Johnson backed[362][363] the Iran nuclear deal framework, despite Donald Trump's withdrawal.[364] Johnson said the deal brought economic benefits to the Iranian people.[365] Johnson described the Gülen movement as a "cult" and supported Turkey's post-coup purges. He said that Turkey's coup attempt "was deeply violent, deeply anti-democratic, deeply sinister and it was totally right that it was crushed".[366] Foreign Ministers of the US, the UK, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, before a working dinner focused on Yemen, 19 July 2016 In April 2017, Johnson said that Gibraltar's sovereignty was "not going to change" after Brexit.[367] Johnson promised while in Northern Ireland that Brexit would leave the Irish border "absolutely unchanged".[368] In May 2017, during the 2017 United Kingdom general election, a woman criticised him for discussing ending tariffs on Indian whisky in a Sikh temple in Bristol (Sikhism prohibits alcohol use). He later expressed regret that the protester held differing views to his on alcohol.[369] Johnson visited the islands of Anguilla, and Tortola (in the British Virgin Islands) on 13 September 2017 to confirm the United Kingdom's commitment to helping restore British territories devastated by Hurricane Irma.[370][371] He said he was reminded of photos of Hiroshima after the atom bomb had landed on it.[372] In September 2017, he was criticised for reciting lines from Rudyard Kipling's poem Mandalay while visiting a Myanmar temple; the British ambassador, who was with him, suggested it was "not appropriate".[373][374][375] In October 2017, he faced criticism for stating the Libyan city of Sirte could become an economic success like Dubai: "all they have to do is clear the dead bodies away".[376][377] Johnson did not condemn the actions of the Spanish government and police during the outlawed Catalan independence referendum on 1 October 2017.[378] Johnson met with Myanmar's de facto leader Aung San Suu Kyi in September 2016 Initially favouring a less hostile approach to Russia,[379] Johnson soon backed a more aggressive policy towards Russia.[380][381] Following the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Salisbury, an act which the UK government blamed on Russia,[382][383] Johnson compared Vladimir Putin's hosting of the World Cup in Russia to Adolf Hitler's hosting of the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1936.[384] Russia's Foreign Ministry denounced Johnson's "unacceptable and unworthy" parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism".[385] Johnson described the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline from Russia to Germany as "divisive" and a "threat" that left Europe dependent on a "malign Russia" for its energy supplies.[386] Johnson condemned the persecution of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar,[387] comparing the situation with the displacement of Palestinians in 1948.[388] Johnson supported the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting the Syrian Kurds from the enclave of Afrin.[389] Johnson meeting with Iranian foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif in Tehran in December 2017 In a September 2017 op-ed, Johnson reiterated the UK would regain control of £350m a week after Brexit, suggesting it go to the National Health Service (NHS).[390] Cabinet colleagues subsequently criticised him for reviving the assertion and accused of "clear misuse of official statistics" by the chair of the UK Statistics Authority, Sir David Norgrove.[391][392] The authority rejected the suggestion that it was quibbling over newspaper headlines and not Johnson's actual words.[392] Following the 2017 general election, Johnson denied media reports he intended to challenge May's leadership.[393] In a February 2018 letter to May, Johnson suggested that Northern Ireland may have to accept border controls after Brexit and that it would not seriously affect trade, having initially said a hard border would be unthinkable.[394] Johnson with Israel's Benjamin Netanyahu in June 2018 In March 2018, Johnson apologised for his "inadvertent sexism" after being criticised for calling Shadow Foreign Secretary Emily Thornberry as "Lady Nugee"; Thornberry was married to Christopher Nugee but did not use his surname.[395] In June, he was reported as having said " f*ck business" when asked about corporate concerns regarding a 'hard' Brexit.[396][397][398][399] Johnson said that US recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital is a "moment of opportunity" for peace.[400] In June 2018, Johnson accused the UNHRC of focusing disproportionately on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories.[401] Secret recordings obtained by BuzzFeed News in June 2018 revealed Johnson's dissatisfaction with Prime Minister Theresa May's negotiating style, accusing her of being too collaborative with the European Union in Brexit negotiations. Comparing May's approach to that of the US President Donald Trump – who at the time was engaged in a combative trade war with the EU because it raised tariffs on metal – Johnson said: "Imagine Trump doing Brexit. He'd go in bloody hard ... There'd be all sorts of breakdowns, all sorts of chaos. Everyone would think he'd gone mad. But actually you might get somewhere. It's a very, very good thought." He also called Philip Hammond and the Treasury "the heart of Remain" and accused individuals of scaremongering over a Brexit "meltdown", saying "No panic. Pro bono publico, no bloody panic. It's going to be all right in the end."[402] During trips to the United States as foreign secretary, Johnson had repeated meetings with Trump adviser and speechwriter Stephen Miller, which were held off White House grounds and kept quiet from May. During the meetings, Miller and Johnson "swapped speech-writing ideas and tips".[403] In July 2018, three days after the cabinet had its meeting at Chequers to agree on a Brexit strategy,[404] Johnson, along with Brexit Secretary David Davis,[405] resigned his post.[406] Return to the backbenches: 2018–2019 By resigning as foreign secretary, Johnson returned to the role of a backbench MP. In July, he delivered a resignation speech, stating that ministers were "saying one thing to the EU about what we are really doing, and pretending another to the electorate". Johnson added that "it is not too late to save Brexit. We have time in these negotiations. We have changed tack once and we can change once again".[407] Buzzfeed reported Johnson had been in contact with Steve Bannon, Donald Trump's former chief adviser. In interviews, Bannon had praised Johnson and said he should challenge Theresa May for the party leadership.[408][409] In January 2019, Johnson came under criticism for remarks he had made during the 2016 Leave campaign regarding the prospect of Turkish accession to the European Union; he denied making such remarks.[410] In March 2019, Johnson said that expenditure on investigating historic allegations of child abuse, instead of more police on the streets, was money "spaffed up the wall".[411] A victim, anti-abuse organisations, a police chief and Shadow police minister Louise Haigh strongly criticised this.[412] Journalism In July 2018, Johnson signed a 12‑month contract to write articles for the Telegraph Media Group.[413] In August, the Advisory Committee on Business Appointments (ACoBA) reported that this employment was a breach of the Ministerial Code.[413][414] In December, Johnson was ordered to apologise to Parliament for failing to declare £50,000 of earnings. The Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards found the errors were not inadvertent, and that Johnson had failed on nine occasions to make declarations within the rules.[415] In September 2018, Johnson wrote: "We have opened ourselves to perpetual political blackmail. We have wrapped a suicide vest around the British constitution – and handed the detonator to Michel Barnier." Senior Tories heavily criticised him, with Alan Duncan of the Foreign Office vowing to ensure the comments marked "the political end of Boris Johnson".[416][417] In April 2019, the Independent Press Standards Organisation ruled that a claim in a 6 January 2019 article in The Daily Telegraph, "The British people won't be scared into backing a woeful Brexit deal nobody voted for", authored by Johnson,[418] that a no-deal Brexit was "by some margin preferred by the British public" was false, and "represented a failure to take care over the accuracy of the article in breach of Clause 1 (i)" of its guidelines, and required that a correction to the false claim be published in the print edition, and appended to the online version.[419] 2019 Conservative Party leadership election Main article: 2019 Conservative Party leadership election The logo used by Johnson's leadership campaign in 2019 On 16 May 2019, Johnson confirmed he would stand in the forthcoming Conservative Party leadership election following Theresa May's anticipated resignation.[420] On 7 June, Johnson formally launched his campaign, saying, "we must leave the EU on 31 October. We must do better than the current Withdrawal Agreement that has been rejected three times by Parliament—and let me clear that I am not aiming for a no-deal outcome. I don't think that we will end up with any such thing. But it is only responsible to prepare vigorously and seriously for no deal."[421] On the campaign trail, Johnson warned of "catastrophic consequences for voter trust in politics" if the government pushed the EU for further delays. He advocated removing the backstop from any Brexit deal and replacing it with alternative arrangements. On 25 and 26 August, he announced plans to retain £7 or £9 billion of the £39 billion divorce payment the UK is due to transfer to the EU upon withdrawal.[422][423] Johnson initially pledged to cut income tax for earners of more than £50,000 by raising the 40% tax threshold to £80,000, but backed away from this plan in June 2019 after coming under criticism in a televised BBC debate.[424] He also said he planned to raise the level at which low-paid workers start to pay National Insurance.[425] A poll of party members published on 13 June showed Johnson to be the clear front-runner.[426] He received 114 votes in the first ballot of party MPs,[427] 126 in the next, 143 votes in the third and 157 in the fourth. In the last ballot, on 20 June, he reached 160 votes and was named one of the final two candidates, alongside Jeremy Hunt.[428] The members' vote closed on 22 July. The following day, Johnson was elected leader with 92,153 votes (66%) to Hunt's 46,656 (34%).[429] Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Main article: Premiership of Boris Johnson First term (July–December 2019) Wikisource has original text related to this article: Boris Johnson: First Speech as Prime Minister On 24 July 2019, the day following Johnson's election as Conservative Party leader, Queen Elizabeth II accepted Theresa May's resignation and appointed Johnson as prime minister. This made Johnson the second prime minister to be born outside the British Isles, after fellow Conservative Bonar Law, and the first to be born outside British territories.[430] Johnson appointed Dominic Cummings, whom he worked with on the Vote Leave campaign, as his senior advisor.[431] Brexit policy Johnson discussing Brexit with French President Emmanuel Macron in Paris Johnson signing the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement In his first speech as PM, Johnson said that the United Kingdom would leave the European Union on 31 October 2019 with or without a deal, and promised to remove the Irish backstop from the Brexit withdrawal agreement.[432][433] Johnson declared his intention to re-open negotiations on the withdrawal agreement, but talks did not immediately resume as the EU refused to accept Johnson's pre-condition that the backstop be removed.[434] The government subsequently announced £2.1bn of funding to prepare for a no-deal Brexit on 31 October.[435] On 28 August 2019, UK and EU negotiators agreed to resume regular meetings to discuss the withdrawal agreement.[436] Also on 28 August 2019, Johnson declared he had asked the Queen to prorogue parliament from 10 September, narrowing the window in which parliament could block a no-deal Brexit and causing a political controversy.[437] The Queen at Privy Council approved prorogation later the same day, and it began on 10 September, scheduled to last until 14 October.[438] Some suggested[439] that this prorogation amounted to a self-coup, and on 31 August 2019, protests occurred in towns and cities throughout the United Kingdom.[440][441] As of 2 September 2019, three separate court cases challenging Johnson's action were in progress or scheduled to take place,[442] and on 11 September, three Scottish judges ruled the prorogation of the UK Parliament to be unlawful.[443][444] On 12 September, Johnson denied lying to the Queen over suspension of the parliament, while a Belfast Court rejected claims that his Brexit plans will have a negative impact on Northern Ireland's peace policy.[445] On 24 September, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that Johnson's advice to prorogue parliament was unlawful, and therefore the prorogation was rendered null and of no effect.[446][447][448] When parliament resumed on 3 September 2019, Johnson indicated he would call a general election under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act after opposition and rebel Conservative MPs successfully voted against the government to take control of the order of business to prevent a no-deal exit.[449] Despite government opposition, the Benn Act, a bill to block a no-deal exit, passed the Commons on 4 September 2019, causing Johnson to propose a general election on 15 October.[450] His motion was unsuccessful as it failed to command the support of two-thirds of the House.[451] In October 2019, following bilateral talks between Johnson and Taoiseach Leo Varadkar,[452] the UK and EU agreed to a revised deal, which replaced the backstop with a new Northern Ireland Protocol.[453][454][455] In December 2019, Johnson said: "quite a large number of people coming in from the whole of the EU—580 million population—[had been] able to treat the UK as though it's basically part of their own country and the problem with that is there has been no control at all".[456] The co-founder of The 3 Million accused Johnson of "demonising" EU migrants.[457] First Cabinet Main article: First Johnson ministry Johnson holding his first cabinet meeting at 10 Downing Street, 25 July 2019 Johnson appointed his Cabinet on 24 July 2019,[458] dismissing 11 senior ministers and accepting the resignation of six others.[459][460] The mass dismissal was the most extensive postwar Cabinet reorganisation without a change in the ruling party, exceeding the seven Cabinet ministers dismissed in the "Night of the Long Knives" of 1962.[461][462] Among other appointments, Johnson made Dominic Raab the First Secretary of State and foreign secretary, and appointed Sajid Javid and Priti Patel as the Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary, respectively. Johnson increased the number of ministers attending the Cabinet to 33, four more than had attended the May Cabinet. One quarter of those appointed were women, and the Cabinet set a record for ethnic minority representation, with four secretaries of state and two additional ministers coming from minority backgrounds. Nearly two-thirds of those appointed went to fee-paying schools, and almost half had attended Oxbridge.[458] Johnson also created a new ministerial role to be held by himself, Minister for the Union, fulfilling a campaign pledge he had made in the leadership election.[463] Spending plans Shortly after he had become prime minister, Johnson's government announced increased public sector spending. In particular, it was announced that an extra 20,000 police officers would be hired, the roll-out of high-speed broadband would be sped up, the funding per school pupil would be increased to a minimum of £5,000 and £1.8 billion for upgrades and new equipment at hospitals. £1 billion of the money for hospitals was money that NHS providers had saved over the past three years and then previously been told they could not spend, rather than being new money.[464] The Chancellor Sajid Javid also announced that the spending review would be fast-tracked to September. Javid said that this was so that departments would be free to plan for the planned Brexit date of 31 October 2019, but there was speculation that the increased spending was to gain popularity in preparation for a possible election in autumn 2019.[465][466] Loss of working majority On 3 September 2019, Phillip Lee crossed the floor to the Liberal Democrats following a disagreement with Johnson's Brexit policy. This left the government without a working majority in the House of Commons.[467] Later that day, 21 Conservative MPs, including the Father of the House and former Chancellor Kenneth Clarke, and another former Chancellor Philip Hammond, had the party whip withdrawn for defying party orders and supporting an opposition motion.[468] (The whip was restored to 10 former Conservative ministers on 29 October.[469]) On 5 September 2019, Johnson's brother Jo Johnson resigned from the government and announced that he would step down as MP, describing his position as "torn between family and national interest".[470] Two days later, Amber Rudd resigned as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions and from the Conservative Party, describing the withdrawal of the party whip from the MPs as an "assault on decency and democracy".[471] 2019 general election Main article: 2019 United Kingdom general election In October 2019, Parliament was dissolved, and an election called for 12 December. The election resulted in the Conservative Party winning 43.6% of the vote and a parliamentary landslide majority of 80 seats—its biggest since 1987 under Margaret Thatcher.[472] A key slogan used in the Conservative campaign was their promise to "Get Brexit Done".[473] Second term (since December 2019) Second Cabinet Main articles: Second Johnson ministry, 2020 British cabinet reshuffle, and 2021 British cabinet reshuffle Johnson appointed Rishi Sunak (right) as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the February 2020 cabinet reshuffle Johnson reshuffled his cabinet on 13 February 2020.[474] Five Cabinet ministers were sacked, including the Northern Ireland Secretary Julian Smith, a decision that was criticised by several politicians and commentators following his success in restoring the Northern Ireland Executive devolved government.[475] Chancellor of the Exchequer Sajid Javid resigned from the Cabinet after refusing a demand from Johnson and Dominic Cummings that he dismiss his advisers.[476] Javid was replaced as Chancellor by Rishi Sunak; Javid later returned to Johnson's Cabinet as Secretary of State for Health and Social Care in June 2021 following the resignation of Matt Hancock. Johnson conducted another reshuffle of his cabinet in September 2021. Changes included the dismissal of Education Secretary Gavin Williamson who had received significant criticism for his handling of disruption to education, such as the 2020 exam grading controversy, during the cvid-19 pandemic. Dominic Raab was moved from Foreign Secretary to Deputy Prime Minister and Justice Secretary, replacing Robert Buckland in the latter role. Raab was replaced as Foreign Secretary by Liz Truss.[477][478] cvid-19 pandemic Main articles: British government response to the cvid-19 pandemic and cvid-19 vaccination programme in the United Kingdom See also: cvid-19 contracts in the United Kingdom and cvid-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom Johnson delivering a press conference on cvid-19, 31 July 2020 The cvid-19 pandemic emerged as a serious crisis within the first few months of Johnson's second term.[479] Throughout the pandemic, Johnson made a number of policy decisions to curb the pandemic some time after the Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE) advised them, and contradicting his previous pledges and statements.[480][481][482][483] Johnson's non-attendance of five COBR briefings during the early months of the pandemic and the failure of the UK government to prepare for and control the outbreak has been criticised.[484][485][486] The UK was amongst the last major[clarification needed] European states to close schools, ban public events and order a lockdown.[487][488] This response is thought by some scientists to have contributed to the UK's high death toll from cvid-19, which as of January 2021 was among the highest in the world in total and by population.[489] Reuters has reported that scientists are critical of Johnson both for acting too slowly to stop the spread of cvid-19 and for mishandling the government's response measures,[490] and Politico quoted Chief Medical Officer Chris Whitty as saying that an earlier initial lockdown would have significantly lowered the death toll.[491] The BMJ published several editorials critical of the policies adopted during the country's public health response.[492][493] Johnson's public communication over the virus and the UK's test and trace system have also been criticised.[490][494][495] On 3 March 2020, Johnson claimed to have shaken hands with cvid-19 patients in hospital on the same day that SAGE had advised the government to warn the public not to shake hands and minimise physical contact,[496][497] though it was unclear whether the hospital he visited actually contained any cvirus patients.[498] He continued to shake hands publicly in the following days including on 5 March and 9 March.[499] On 20 March, Johnson requested the closure of pubs, restaurants, gyms, entertainment venues, museums and galleries that evening, though with some regret, saying, "We're taking away the ancient, inalienable right of free-born people of the United Kingdom to go to the pub."[500][501] On 23 March, this was strengthened into a cvid-19 lockdown throughout the UK, except for a few limited purposes, backed up by new legal powers.[502] On 27 March, it was announced that Johnson had tested positive for cvid-19.[503] On 5 April, with his symptoms persisting, he was admitted to a hospital for tests.[504] The next day, his condition having worsened, he was moved to the hospital's intensive care unit;[505][506] Dominic Raab was appointed to deputise for him.[506] Johnson left intensive care on 9 April,[507] and left hospital three days later to recuperate at Chequers.[508] After a fortnight at Chequers, he returned to Downing Street on 26 April and was said to be chairing a government cvid-19 "war cabinet" meeting.[509] Johnson later said that he had been given emergency oxygen while in intensive care, and that doctors had made preparations in case of the event of his death.[510] A scandal in May 2020 involved Johnson's chief political advisor Dominic Cummings, who made a trip with his family to Durham during the March 2020 lockdown while experiencing cvid-19 symptoms. Both Cummings and Johnson rejected widespread calls that Cummings resign.[511][512][513] Calls for Johnson to dismiss Cummings came from MPs both within and outside the Conservative Party. Johnson's defence of Cummings and his refusal to sack him caused a widespread backlash.[514] This resulted in a loss of confidence in the government and specifically its response to the pandemic, referred to as 'the Cummings effect' in a study in The Lancet. Concerns were raised in the study that this could affect the public's compliance with pandemic restrictions.[515][516] The Johnson ministry has been accused of cronyism in their assignment of contracts related to the pandemic response. Procurement of government contracts for key cvid-19 supplies and measures has become less transparent as a result of emergency measures which have bypassed the usual competitive tendering process.[517][13] In October 2020, Johnson conceded that the UK's test and trace system and its specially developed contact tracing app, which had been criticised for their cost and operational issues, had caused "frustrations" and needed improvement.[490][518][519] Johnson hosts virtual G7 meeting in February 2021 Johnson reportedly resisted calls from SAGE and within the government to enact a second lockdown throughout September as cvid-19 infections rose.[482][520] In April 2021, Johnson denied allegations he had said he would rather "let the bodies pile high in their thousands" than enact a second national lockdown on 30 October 2020.[521][522][523] The government enacted a second national lockdown on 31 October.[481] Throughout December 2020, cvid-19 cases across the UK rose significantly, putting additional strain on emergency services and hospitals[524][525] as the Alpha variant spread widely.[526] In response, the government enacted further restrictions to large parts of southern and eastern England and on 21 December shortened a planned household mixing period over Christmas.[527] After Russia began the world's first cvid-19 vaccination programme on 5 December 2020,[528] Britain began its programme three days later.[529] NHS workers successfully ensured that half of UK adults had received at least their first vaccine dose by 20 March 2021.[530] A third lockdown for the whole of England was introduced on 6 January 2021.[531] Record numbers of infections and daily deaths were recorded in the UK throughout January, and the government began exploring quarantine procedures on arrival.[532] Johnson said he was "deeply sorry" and "take[s] full responsibility" as the UK passed 100,000 deaths from cvid-19, the first European country to do so, on 26 January.[533] Johnson with US President Joe Biden at the G7 summit in Cornwall, 10 June 2021 In July 2021, Johnson announced that most generalised public health restrictions in England would be lifted and replaced by recommendations. This took place despite an increase in cases driven by the Delta variant.[534][535] In September 2021, Johnson was pictured in a cabinet meeting, with "at least 30 people crammed shoulder-to-shoulder", without anyone wearing masks and with all windows apparently closed, contradicting government advice.[536] Johnson was also photographed without a face mask during a visit to a hospital in November, although images showed that he did wear a mask at some points during his visit.[537] In December 2021, more stringent restrictions for England were put forward by Johnson and the government. The restrictions, called "Plan B", were a partial renewal of previous measures due to the increased incidence of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. These proposals included face coverings to be required in more public settings, guidance to work from home wherever possible, and requirements of cvid-19 passports to enter a nightclub or other large venues.[538] Against these measures, the government experienced the largest rebellion of Conservative MPs during Johnson's premiership.[539][540] Departure of Dominic Cummings and Lee Cain See also: Dominic Cummings scandal and Dominic Cummings § Departure from Downing Street On 12 November 2020, Downing Street Director of Communications Lee Cain resigned amid infighting within the cabinet. He had been offered a promotion to chief of staff before his departure.[541] On 13 November, Johnson ordered Chief Adviser Dominic Cummings, a longtime colleague of Cain, to vacate Downing Street. Despite this, reports stated Cummings and Cain would continue to work from home for the cabinet office until mid-December.[542][543] Several months after his dismissal, on 26 May 2021, Cummings claimed during a seven-hour testimony delivered to Parliament that Johnson was "unfit for the job" and that "tens of thousands of people died who didn't need to die" during the early days of the cvid-19 pandemic due to what he claimed to be "criminal, disgraceful behaviour" within Downing Street under the supervision of Health Secretary Matt Hancock.[544][545] Johnson and Hancock denied some of Cummings' claims but declined to acknowledge others, such as Cummings claiming Johnson attempted to play down the threat of cvid-19 by saying it was "only killing 80-year-olds" during the pandemic's early stages.[546][547] Legislative agenda At the State Opening of Parliament on 11 May 2021, a range of proposed laws were announced that are expected to be enacted during Johnson's second term. These measures include the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Bill, which would restore the royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament; a Higher Education (Freedom of Speech) Bill to combat deplatforming at universities;[548] an Online Safety Bill that would impose a statutory duty of care on online companies and empower Ofcom to block particular websites;[549] and an Animal Welfare (Sentience) Bill that would legally recognise animal sentience. Further laws would introduce mandatory voter identification at general elections, reform the national immigration system, and implement a levelling up policy to reduce imbalances between areas.[548] 2021 Downing Street refurbishment controversy Further information: 2021 Downing Street refurbishment controversy In April 2021, Cummings made allegations that Johnson had arranged for donors to "secretly pay" for renovations on the private residence at 11 Downing Street.[550] Cummings wrote on his blog that the plans were "unethical, foolish, possibly illegal" and "almost certainly broke the rules on proper disclosure of political donations if conducted in the way he intended."[551][552] On 27 April Johnson asked the Cabinet Secretary, Simon Case, to hold a review about the refurbishment.[553] On 28 April, the Electoral Commission announced it had opened a formal investigation into the allegations.[554][555] On the same day Johnson said that he had not broken any laws over the refurbishment and had met the requirements he was obliged to meet in full.[556] During Prime Minister's Questions, the leader of the opposition, Keir Starmer, asked: "Who initially paid for the redecoration of his Downing Street flat?"; Johnson responded: "I paid for Downing Street's refurbishment personally."[557] On 28 May Lord Geidt published a report on the allegations in an annex to the register of interests. The report concluded that Johnson did not breach the Ministerial Code and that no conflict, or reasonably perceived conflict, of interest arose. However, Lord Geidt expressed that it was "unwise" for Johnson to have proceeded with refurbishments without "more rigorous regard for how this would be funded".[558][559] Angela Rayner, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, wrote to Lord Geidt asking for evidence of the lack of conflict of interest and said that it was "frankly scarcely believable" that Johnson did not know who was funding the refurbishments.[560][561] The Electoral Commission reported on 9 December that it found that the Conservative Party had failed to follow the law in not accurately reporting donations to the party from Lord Brownlow and imposed a £17,800 fine on the party.[562][563] The Herald say the commission's report outlines how in March all the money paid by Brownlow and his company had been reimbursed as had payments made by the Conservative Party and Cabinet Office.[563] Downing Street had said at the time that the full cost of the works had been met personally by the prime minister.[563] 2021 energy crisis In September 2021, a fuel supply crisis occurred in the UK, caused by panic buying triggered by media reports of a leaked government briefing discussing the shortage of heavy goods vehicle (HGV) drivers.[564] This coincided with a rise in energy prices that Johnson said was a "short-term" problem caused by "the global economy coming back to life" after the cvid-19 pandemic. Economists of various political views, and the head of energy regulator Ofgem strongly disagreed.[565][566] 2021 Party conference speech At the Conservative party conference in October 2021, Johnson was criticised by Simon Wolfson, chairman of Next plc, a major party donor and Brexit supporter. Wolfson said Johnson had failed to address supply chain issues. The Adam Smith Institute described Johnson's speech as "bombastic but vacuous and economically illiterate".[567] Owen Paterson controversy See also: Owen Paterson § Lobbying and breach of Commons advocacy rules, and United Kingdom parliamentary second jobs controversy In November 2021, Johnson backed a motion to block the suspension of Owen Paterson, a Conservative MP found to have abused his position by the independent standards commissioner after undertaking paid lobbying on behalf of two companies.[568] The motion called for the creation of a new Conservative-majority committee to examine reforms of the standards investigation process.[569] Many Conservative MPs refused to support the motion, and 13 defied a three-line whip to vote against it.[570] Following the announcement by opposition parties that they would boycott the new committee, and faced with a backlash in the media and from MPs of all parties, the government reversed its position and announced that a new vote would take place on whether Paterson should be suspended.[571] Paterson announced his resignation as an MP the same day.[572] After Paterson resigned, a by-election was held in Paterson's former constituency of North Shropshire. The Liberal Democrat candidate, Helen Morgan, overturned a Conservative majority of nearly 23,000 to win the seat.[573] The 34% swing was seventh largest in United Kingdom by-election history.[574] Partygate scandal Main article: Partygate Downing Street, where some of the gatherings took place[575] In early December 2021, reports emerged that social gatherings of government and Conservative Party staff in Downing Street had taken place ahead of Christmas 2020 against cvid-19 regulations. Johnson and a spokesperson denied these allegations.[576][577] Following a leaked video showing Downing Street staff joking about a "fictional party", at a press conference rehearsal recorded days after one alleged party took place, Johnson apologised for the contents of the video and suggested he had been misled but had now ordered an inquiry into whether a party took place and whether rules were broken.[578][579] On 10 January 2022, ITV News reported that a planned party had taken place on 20 May 2020, during the first lockdown. ITV had obtained an email sent by principal private secretary Martin Reynolds to staff inviting them to "socially distanced drinks" in the garden of No. 10 and asking them to "bring your own booze".[580] At the time, people outdoors were not allowed to meet more than one person from outside their household.[581] Two eyewitnesses later alleged that Johnson and Symonds attended, contradicting Johnson's insistence in December 2021 that there were "no parties".[582][580] At first, Johnson did not deny that he attended.[583] On 12 January 2022, Johnson apologised to MPs in the Commons for "attending an event in the Downing Street garden during the first lockdown",[584][585] stating he believed it was "a work event".[586] He said that MPs should await the outcome of the independent inquiry into Westminster lockdown parties, led by senior civil servant Sue Gray, which he said "will report as soon as possible".[587] There were immediate calls across the House for Johnson to resign, voiced mainly by the leaders of the opposition parties. Later, Scottish Conservative leader Douglas Ross and several other Conservative MPs expressed their agreement.[587][588] An image of Johnson at a social gathering, from Sue Gray's report into the partygate scandal. On 19 January, Bury South MP Christian Wakeford defected from the Conservative Party to the Labour Party.[589] At the end of Prime Minister's Questions, Conservative former minister David Davis called for Johnson to resign, quoting Leo Amery calling on Neville Chamberlain to resign during the Norway Debate in 1940, and saying: "You have sat there too long for all the good you have done. In the name of God, go."[590][591][592] Amery's call was itself a reference to Cromwell's dismissal of the Rump parliament. On 25 January, the Metropolitan Police's chief commander, Cressida Dick, announced that they were commencing investigations into the Downing Street Parties. Dick stated that "potential breaches of cvid-19 regulations" at Downing Street and Whitehall over the last two years would be looked into.[593] An abbreviated version of the Sue Gray report into the controversy was released on 31 January, where Gray concluded there was a "failure of leadership" over the events that she had examined. The release of the full report was delayed pending the Metropolitan Police's investigation.[594] In early February 2022, four of Johnson's senior aides resigned: Dan Rosenfield (chief of staff), Martin Reynolds (principal private secretary), Munira Mirza (head of policy) and Jack Doyle (director of communications).[595] On 12 April 2022, Downing Street confirmed that Johnson would be issued a fixed penalty notice for £50 as police believed he had broken the law by breaching cvid-19 regulations when attending parties during cvid-19 restrictions.[596] At least 50 such notices would be issued, with other recipients including Johnson's wife and Chancellor Sunak. Johnson therefore became the first Prime Minister in British history to have been sanctioned for breaking the law while in office.[597] Boris Johnson either knowingly broke the law or did not understand laws he himself had introduced.[575] According to Downing Street insiders, Johnson was involved in instigating a party on the occasion of Lee Cain leaving Number 10. What had begun as press office drinks became a party after Johnson arrived, gave a speech and poured drinks for staff. Labour's deputy leader, Angela Rayner said, "If the latest reports are true, it would mean that not only did the prime minister attend parties, but he had a hand in instigating at least one of them. He has deliberately misled the British people at every turn. The prime minister has demeaned his office."[598][599][600][601] On 19 April 2022, Commons Speaker Lindsay Hoyle decided that MPs would vote, on 21 April, on whether Johnson should be referred to the Parliamentary Privileges Committee to investigate whether he knowingly misled Parliament.[602] This was waved through unopposed on 21 April.[603] Steve Baker said Johnson's, "marvellous contrition... only lasted as long as it took to get out of the headmaster's study". Baker added, "I have to acknowledge that if the prime minister occupied any other office of senior responsibility... he would be long gone."[604] In April 2022, a poll by The Independent found 27% of voters who voted Conservative in the 2019 general election claim they are less likely vote that way again if Johnson stays leader. Labour were at 40% with the Conservatives at 34%. Johnson rated -28 (33% claim he does a good job and 61% bad) worse than -19 the previous month. About 65%, including 46% of Conservative voters maintained Johnson should resign if he gets more fixed penalty notices or gets severe criticism in Sue Gray's report and 63% maintained his apologies were not good enough. Only 28% believed he did not know he was breaking the law during a Downing Street birthday party, while 63%, including 52% of Conservative voters, maintained he was lying.[605] Leaflets for the May 2022 referred to candidates as Local Conservatives and avoided pictures of Johnson.[606] Following the May 2022 local elections in the UK, many leading Conservatives in areas where the Conservatives had done badly were blaming Johnson and calling on Johnson to resign.[607] On 1 June, Lord Geidt said he wanted Johnson to explain why he thought his fixed penalty notice did not show he had broken the ministerial code.[608] On 6 June, Graham Brady announced that the threshold for a vote on Johnson's leadership had been passed; the vote was scheduled for later that same day.[609] Starmer slur controversy While speaking in the House of Commons on 31 January 2022, Johnson falsely blamed Starmer for the non-prosecution of serial sex offender Jimmy Savile when Starmer was Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) in the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS). Starmer was DPP in the years immediately prior to Savile's death but there is no evidence he was involved in the decision to not have him prosecuted.[610] The claim linking the failure of the CPS to prosecute Savile to Starmer originated in 2018 on the right-wing Guido Fawkes blog, and was amplified in April 2020 by the far-right fake news website Politicalite.[611] Johnson received criticism for the comment and his policy adviser, Munira Mirza, resigned three days later, saying in her resignation letter that Johnson had made "a scurrilous accusation" against Starmer.[612] On 3 February, during an interview with Sky News, Johnson defended his comments, stating that in 2013, Starmer apologised because the CPS had not investigated Savile; however, Johnson then said: "I totally understand that he [Starmer] had nothing to do personally with those decisions".[613] On 7 February, while Starmer and his colleague David Lammy were leaving Parliament, they were ambushed by a group of people who shouted abuse at Starmer including the words "traitor" and "Jimmy Savile". Two people, a man and a woman, were arrested after a traffic cone was thrown at police officers. Johnson tweeted that it was "absolutely disgraceful" and thanked the police for acting swiftly.[614] Shayan Sardarizadeh for BBC Monitoring said that the protest was an attempt to recreate the Canadian convoy protests in the UK, and noted that the activists' references to Magna Carta indicated that the protesters were members of the sovereign citizen movement.[614] The Savile claims have also been linked to British offshoots of the QAnon conspiracy movement.[611] Julian Smith, the former chief whip, and Simon Hoare were among Conservatives who called for Johnson to apologise. MP Kim Leadbeater and Brendan Cox, the sister and husband of murdered MP Jo Cox, warned against politicians lending credence to far-right conspiracy theories.[615][616] Death threats sent to Starmer following this episode were later investigated by the police.[617] New hospitals During the 2019 United Kingdom general election campaign and many times afterwards, Johnson pledged to build 40 new hospitals by 2030.[618] Most of the claimed "new" hospitals are not entire new hospitals however, but instead new wings or refurbishments of existing hospitals[618] and only six will be completed by 2025.[619] In July 2022 the National Audit Office announced an investigation into the affordability of the pledge and raised concerns about the claim that the hospitals will be "new".[620] Vote of confidence Main article: 2022 vote of confidence in the Conservative Party leadership of Boris Johnson In the week prior to and throughout the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II in June 2022, it had been speculated that a vote of confidence in Johnson's leadership of the Conservative Party might occur in the near future.[621][622] On 6 June 2022, the Conservative Party announced that Johnson would face a vote of confidence in his leadership of the party, after at least 54 Conservative MPs wrote no-confidence letters to Sir Graham Brady, the chairman of the 1922 Committee, meeting the threshold required to arrange such a vote. Johnson won the vote, with 211 in favour and 148 against (59% in favour, 41% against).[623][624] The number of rebel MPs was larger than had been expected.[624] The vote showed more widespread lack of confidence in Johnson than similar votes during the leadership of Margaret Thatcher and Theresa May.[624] The result was described by Keir Starmer as the "beginning of the end" for Johnson's premiership.[625] June by-elections Following heavy Conservative defeats in the 23 June by-elections in Wakefield by the Labour Party and in Tiverton and Honiton, by the Liberal Democrats, former party leader Michael Howard called for Johnson to resign, saying: "[Mr Johnson's] biggest asset has always been his ability to win votes but I'm afraid yesterday's results make it clear that he no longer has that ability."[626][627] Oliver Dowden, the Co-Chairman of the Conservative Party, resigned saying: "We cannot carry on with business as usual"[628][629] and "Somebody must take responsibility".[630] Johnson announced that had no intention of changing or resigning; senior Conservatives accused him of increasingly "delusional" behaviour.[631][632] On 26 June 2022 Johnson said: "At the moment I'm thinking actively about the third term and what could happen then, but I will review that when I get to it." He also claimed that he intended to stay as prime minister until the mid-2030s, although Number 10 later said that he had been joking.[633] Pincher sexual assault claims Main article: Chris Pincher scandal Government Deputy Chief Whip Chris Pincher resigned on 30 June 2022, saying he had "drunk far too much" the night before at the Carlton Club, a private members' club, in St James's, London and having "embarrassed myself and other people".[634] It was later alleged that he sexually assaulted two men,[635] and he was suspended as a Conservative MP.[636] On 3 July 2022 six new allegations against Pincher emerged, involving behaviour over a decade.[637] Johnson allegedly referred to Pincher as "handsy" and Cummings said Johnson joked about him being "Pincher by name, pincher by nature" in 2020, leading to calls for Johnson to explain how much he knew about Pincher's behaviour.[638] Ministers initially said that Johnson was unaware of any specific complaints against Pincher when he was appointed as deputy chief whip. The BBC then reported, however, that an official complaint and subsequent investigation into Pincher, while he was at the Foreign Office (July 2019 to February 2020), had confirmed his misconduct, and that Johnson had been made aware of the matter at that time.[639] Sir Simon McDonald, former Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, later said that the prime minister had been briefed "in person" about Pincher.[640][641] Mass resignations Main article: 2022 United Kingdom government crisis On 5 July, Sunak and Javid resigned within minutes of each other,[642] followed over the next 24 hours by 11 other ministers, as well as Conservative MPs from Parliamentary Private Secretary and other Government positions, including the Solicitor General, Alex Chalk;[643] other backbenchers also withdrew their support for Johnson. Many of the MPs involved stated that the Pincher affair had led them to change their minds on the suitability of Johnson to hold the office of Prime Minister.[644] It was further reported on 6 July that Johnson could face another confidence vote, with members of the 1922 Committee considering changing the rules as soon as that evening to allow this to happen.[645] By 4 p.m. on 6 July, there had been a total of 31 resignations.[646] As of May 2022, the government comprised 122 ministers.[647] Announcement of resignation Johnson announcing his resignation as Leader of the Conservative Party By the morning of 7 July, the newly installed Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nadhim Zahawi, publicly stated his belief that Johnson should resign. Within hours, the BBC and other news outlets reported Boris Johnson's intention to resign as Prime Minister, pending a party leadership election by autumn 2022. Johnson announced his resignation at 12.30 p.m.[648][649][650] Upon reports of his resignation, the pound sterling temporarily strengthened in value and UK stocks rose.[651] He remains as Prime Minister until his party chooses a new leader.[652] LGBT issues In early April 2022, Johnson decided to ban conversion therapy for sexual orientation but not for transgender Britons, despite previous commitment to end such treatment for all LGBT people. He defended his decision citing "complexities and sensitivities", adding that he thought biological males should not compete in women's sport and women should have their own changing rooms. In the government's 2017 LGBT survey, five percent of the respondents said they had been offered a form of conversion therapy, with two percent saying they had undergone it. As a result of the transgender exclusion, over 100 organisations pulled out of a planned global equality conference, Safe To Be Me, which had to be abandoned as a result.[653][654] Environmental policies In November 2020, Johnson announced a 10-point plan for a "green industrial revolution", which would include an end to the sale of petrol and diesel cars and vans by 2030,[e] quadruple the amount of offshore wind power capacity within a decade, fund a variety of emissions-cutting proposals, and spurn a proposed green post-cvid-19 recovery.[656] In 2021, the UK government under Johnson's leadership announced plans to cut carbon emissions by 78% by 2035.[657] Johnson announced that the UK would join the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by the year of 2030 at the COP26 summit, which the UK hosted.[658][659] Before the summit, representatives of Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth criticised Johnson's comments on plans to introduce "enforceable limits" on carbon emissions for other countries, which they accused of being unsubstantive[660] and his government faced criticism from environmental groups for cutting taxes on domestic air travel, given the environmental impact of aviation.[661] He was accused of hypocrisy, by Anneliese Dodds of the Labour Party and others, for flying by a chartered private jet during COP26 to attend a reunion of Telegraph journalists at the Garrick Club.[662][663] In April 2022, Johnson announced that eight more nuclear reactors would be built on existing nuclear power plant sites, and called for an expansion in wind energy.[664] Under these plans, up to 95% of the UK's electricity could come from low-carbon power sources by 2030.[665] Foreign policy Further information: List of international prime ministerial trips made by Boris Johnson Johnson with US President Donald Trump at the G7 summit in Biarritz, 26 August 2019 Johnson supported the European Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement,[666] which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas.[667] Johnson's government placed importance on maintaining the "Special Relationship" with the United States.[668][669] In 2022, his government introduced an asylum deal with Rwanda, whereby people entering the UK illegally would be sent to Rwanda.[670] Johnson and Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Berlin Conference on Libya, 19 January 2020 Chagos dispute The United Kingdom and Mauritius dispute the sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean.[671] In February 2019, the International Court of Justice in The Hague issued an advisory opinion stating that the UK has an obligation to bring to an end its administration of the Chagos archipelago as rapidly as possible. In June 2020, 30 British MPs – including Labour, SNP and Liberal Democrats – signed a letter calling on Prime Minister Johnson to act immediately on the ICJ ruling. However, the Foreign Office rejected the advisory opinion.[672] Johnson disputed Mauritian claims to sovereignty over the Chagos.[673] Johnson with Polish troops and Poland's PM Mateusz Morawiecki in Warsaw, 10 February 2022 Hong Kong and China Johnson said in July 2019 that his government would be very "pro-China" in an interview with the Hong Kong broadcaster Phoenix TV. He voiced support for Chinese President Xi Jinping's infrastructure investment effort, the Belt and Road Initiative, and promised to keep the United Kingdom "the most open economy in Europe" for Chinese investment.[674] On 3 June 2020, Johnson announced that if China were to continue pursuing the Hong Kong national security law, the UK would offer 350,000 Hong Kong residents who are British National (Overseas) passport holders, and 2.6 million other eligible individuals, the chance to move to the UK, with the possibility of later applying for citizenship.[675] China accused the UK of interfering in its internal affairs.[676] The UK joined the AUKUS defence pact with the United States and Australia in September 2021, which was interpreted as aiming to counter Chinese power in the Indo-Pacific region. The pact was denounced by China[677] and caused a French backlash, as it usurped existing plans for Australia to procure French submarines.[678] Johnson was dismissive of this, saying the pact was not intended to be adversarial towards China, and said that French officials should "prenez un grip about this and donnez-moi un break".[679] Afghanistan On 8 July 2021, the day after saying he was "apprehensive" about the future of Afghanistan following what was then the impending withdrawal of US troops, whilst announcing the near completion of British troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, Johnson expressed the view that there was "no military path to victory for the Taliban".[680][681] A few weeks later, following the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, he blamed the United States for the crisis caused by the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan,[682][683] saying that NATO alliance members "could not continue this US-led mission, a mission conceived and executed in support of America, without American logistics, without US air power and without American might".[684] UK–EU trade negotiation Main articles: Trade deal negotiation between the UK and EU and EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement Following the formal withdrawal from the European Union in January 2020, Johnson's government entered trade negotiations with the EU to agree on their future relationship before the end of the transition period on 31 December 2020.[685] Fisheries was a major topic of the negotiations.[685][686] On 16 October 2020 Johnson said that the UK "must get ready" for no trade deal with the EU.[687] With negotiations continuing until days before the deadline, it was announced on 24 December 2020 that a trade deal had been agreed.[688] Entitled the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement, it came into force provisionally on 1 January 2021, and formally on 1 May. A fisheries dispute between the UK and France occurred shortly afterwards. Introduction of new UK border checks were delayed until 2022 to minimise the disruption caused by the cvid-19 pandemic.[685] In May 2022, Johnson readied a draft that would unilaterally change parts of the Northern Ireland Protocol, citing issues with medical supplies and cuts in VAT. One of the thornier points of contention involves safety regulations for food and plants, an area where the British government is opposed to a closer alignment with existing EU regulations. For its part, the EU has so far rebuffed the idea of changing the text of the treaty to accommodate the British. A unilateral override by the UK would be tantamount to a breach of the agreement. As Johnson sought a more conciliatory tone, sources within the government began to stress that the draft is designed to be an "insurance policy" and in any case would take years to become law.[689] Russia and Ukraine Johnson walks on a street of war-hit Kyiv along with President of Ukraine Zelenskyy on 10 April 2022 In November 2021, Johnson warned that the European Union faces "a choice" between "sticking up for Ukraine" and approving the Nord Stream 2 natural gas pipeline which runs from Russia to Europe.[690] During the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis, Johnson's government warned the Russian Government not to invade Donbas.[691][692][693] Despite this, Johnson's Foreign Secretary Liz Truss told BBC News that British troops were "unlikely" to be deployed.[694] In a phone call to President Vladimir Putin, Johnson urged him to "avoid bloodshed".[695] Johnson and Putin agreed in a phone call to work towards a "peaceful resolution".[696] On 1 February 2022, Johnson arrived in Kyiv on a diplomatic visit.[697] He called the presence of the Russian Armed Forces near the Russia–Ukraine border "the biggest security crisis that Europe has faced for decades".[698] The Kremlin denied that it wanted to attack Ukraine.[698] On 14 February 2022, Johnson warned an invasion of Ukraine could take place within 48 hours.[699] On 20 February 2022, Johnson warned that Russia is planning the "biggest war in Europe since 1945" as Putin intends to invade and encircle the capital of Kyiv.[700] On 21 February 2022, Johnson condemned Russia's diplomatic recognition of two self-proclaimed separatist republics in Donbas.[701] Johnson condemned the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, and ensured the UK joined in international sanctions on Russian banks and oligarchs.[702] He later announced the UK would phase out Russian oil by the end of 2022.[703] On 9 April 2022, Johnson travelled to Kyiv and met the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy.[704] On 16 April 2022, Russia's Ministry for Foreign Affairs banned Johnson and a number of senior British politicians, including cabinet members, from visiting Russia, saying that Britain aimed to isolate Russia politically and supply "the Kyiv regime with lethal weapons and coordinating similar efforts on the part of NATO".[705] Within Ukraine, Johnson is praised by many as a supporter of anti-Russian sanctions and military aid for Ukraine.[706] The defence secretary Ben Wallace said on 25 April that the UK had provided £200m in military aid to Ukraine.[707] On 3 May, Johnson virtually addressed the Ukrainian parliament, becoming the first world leader to speak in Ukraine since the invasion. In his speech, he pledged an extra £300m in military aid to Ukraine, praised Ukraine's resistance to Russia as its "finest hour" and said that the West had been "too slow to grasp what was actually happening" prior to Russia's invasion.[708][709] Electoral performance for the House of Commons This section is an excerpt from Electoral history of Boris Johnson § Parliamentary elections.[edit] 1997 general election, Clwyd South This section is transcluded from Clwyd South (UK Parliament constituency). (edit | history) General election 1997: Clwyd South[710][711] Party     Candidate     Votes     %     ±%     Labour     Martyn Jones     22,901     58.1     N/A     Conservative     Boris Johnson     9,091     23.1     N/A     Liberal Democrats     Andrew Chadwick     3,684     9.4     N/A     Plaid Cymru     Gareth Williams     2,500     6.3     N/A     Referendum     Alex Lewis     1,207     3.1     N/A Majority     13,810     35.0     N/A Turnout     39,383     73.6     N/A Registered electors     53,495              Labour win (new seat) 2001 general election, Henley This section is transcluded from Henley (UK Parliament constituency). (edit | history) General election 2001: Henley[712][713] Party     Candidate     Votes     %     ±%     Conservative     Boris Johnson     20,466     46.1     –0.3     Liberal Democrats     Catherine Bearder     12,008     27.0     +2.3     Labour     Janet Matthews     9,367     21.1     –1.6     UKIP     Philip Collings     1,413     3.2     New     Green     Oliver Tickell     1,147     2.6     +1.6 Majority     8,458     19.1     –2.6 Turnout     44,401     64.3     –13.3     Conservative hold     Swing     –1.3      2005 general election, Henley This section is transcluded from Henley (UK Parliament constituency). (edit | history) General election 2005: Henley[714][712] Party     Candidate     Votes     %     ±%     Conservative     Boris Johnson     24,894     53.5     +7.4     Liberal Democrats     David Turner     12,101     26.0     –1.0     Labour     Kaleem Saeed     6,862     14.7     –6.4     Green     Mark Stevenson     1,518     3.3     +0.7     UKIP     Delphine Gray-Fisk     1,162     2.5     –0.7 Majority     12,793     27.5     +8.4 Turnout     46,537     67.9     +3.6     Conservative hold     Swing     +4.2      2015 general election, Uxbridge and South Ruislip This section is transcluded from Uxbridge and South Ruislip (UK Parliament constituency). (edit | history) General election 2015: Uxbridge and South Ruislip[715][716][717] Party     Candidate     Votes     %     ±%     Conservative     Boris Johnson     22,511     50.2     Increase1.9     Labour     Chris Summers[718]     11,816     26.4     Increase3.0     UKIP     Jack Duffin     6,346     14.2     Increase11.5     Liberal Democrats     Michael Cox     2,215     4.9     Decrease14.9     Green     Graham Lee[719]     1,414     3.2     Increase2.1     TUSC     Gary Harbord[720]     180     0.4     New     Independent     Jenny Thompson[721]     84     0.2     New     Monster Raving Loony     Howling Laud Hope[722]     72     0.2     New     Communities United     Sabrina Moosun[721]     52     0.1     New     The Eccentric Party of Great Britain (UK)     Lord Toby Jug[721]     50     0.1     New     Independent     Michael Doherty[721]     39     0.1     New     The Realists' Party     Jane Lawrence[721]     18     0.0     New     Independent     James Jackson[721]     14     0.0     New Majority     10,695     23.8     Decrease1.1 Turnout     44,811     63.4     Increase0.1 Registered electors     70,631              Conservative hold     Swing     Decrease0.5      2017 general election, Uxbridge and South Ruislip This section is transcluded from Uxbridge and South Ruislip (UK Parliament constituency). (edit | history) General election 2017: Uxbridge and South Ruislip[723][724] Party     Candidate     Votes     %     ±%     Conservative     Boris Johnson     23,716     50.8     Increase0.6     Labour     Vincent Lo     18,682     40.0     Increase13.6     Liberal Democrats     Rosina Robson     1,835     3.9     Decrease1.0     UKIP     Lizzy Kemp     1,577     3.4     Decrease10.8     Green     Mark Keir     884     1.9     Decrease1.3 Majority     5,034     10.8     Decrease13.0 Turnout     46,694     66.8     Increase3.4 Registered electors     69,936              Conservative hold     Swing     Decrease6.5      2019 general election, Uxbridge and South Ruislip This section is transcluded from Uxbridge and South Ruislip (UK Parliament constituency). (edit | history) General election 2019: Uxbridge and South Ruislip[723][725] Party     Candidate     Votes     %     ±%     Conservative     Boris Johnson     25,351     52.6     Increase1.8     Labour     Ali Milani     18,141     37.6     Decrease2.4     Liberal Democrats     Joanne Humphreys     3,026     6.3     Increase2.4     Green     Mark Keir     1,090     2.2     Increase0.3     UKIP     Geoffrey Courtenay     283     0.6     Decrease2.8     Monster Raving Loony     Lord Buckethead     125     0.3     New     Independent     Count Binface     69     0.1     New     Independent     Alfie Utting     44     0.1     New     [726]     Yace "Interplanetary Time Lord" Yogenstein     23     0.0     New     Independent     Norma Burke     22     0.0     New     [726]     Bobby Smith     8     0.0     New     [726]     William Tobin[727]     5     0.0     New Majority     7,210     15.0     Increase4.2 Turnout     48,187     68.5     Increase1.7 Registered electors     70,369              Conservative hold     Swing     Increase2.1      Political positions and ideology Main article: Political positions of Boris Johnson Johnson at a demonstration against hospital closures with Liberal Democrat MP John Hemming (left) and Conservative MP Graham Stuart (centre) in March 2006     [I am] free-market, tolerant, broadly libertarian (though perhaps not ultra-libertarian), inclined to see the merit of traditions, anti-regulation, pro-immigrant, pro-standing on your own two feet, pro-alcohol, pro-hunting, pro-motorist and ready to defend to the death the right of Glenn Hoddle to believe in reincarnation. —Boris Johnson, 2011[152] Ideologically, Johnson has been described by himself and others as a "One-Nation Tory".[728][729] Political scientists have described Johnson's political positions as ambiguous and contradictory, encompassing nativist, authoritarian and free market tendencies on the one hand, and one-nation liberal conservatism on the other.[730] Some scholars have questioned Johnson's commitment to one-nation conservativism, instead characterising his ideology as being flexible and populist.[731][732] Purnell stated that Johnson regularly changed his opinion on political issues, commenting on what she perceived to be "an ideological emptiness beneath the staunch Tory exterior".[733] She later referred to his "opportunistic – some might say pragmatic – approach to politics".[15] During his tenure as London Mayor, Johnson gained a reputation as "a liberal, centre-ground politician", according to Business Insider.[734] In 2012, the political scientist Tony Travers described Johnson as "a fairly classic—that is, small-state—mildly eurosceptic Conservative" who, like his contemporaries Cameron and George Osborne, also embraced "modern social liberalism".[735] The Guardian stated that while mayor, Johnson blended economic and social liberalism,[736] with The Economist saying that in doing so Johnson "transcends his Tory identity" and adopts a more libertarian perspective.[737] According to political scientist Richard Hayton, Johnson's premiership centred around Brexit, which served as a "national cause". Johnson evoked the discourse of popular sovereignty and anti-establishment populism to portray Parliament as seeking to "sabotage" Brexit, and in doing so, presented himself "as the true representative of 'the people'".[730][738] In 2019, Al Jazeera editor James Brownswell said that although Johnson had "leaned to the right" since the Brexit campaign, he remained "slightly more socially liberal" than much of his party.[739] Scholars of comparative politics have drawn comparisons between Johnson and other populist leaders such as Donald Trump and Viktor Orban.[738] Some commentators have likened aspects of Johnson's political style to Trumpism,[740][741][742] although others have argued against this, saying that Johnson's stance on matters such as social policy, immigration and free trade is liberal.[743][better source needed] Johnson biographer Gimson wrote that Johnson is economically and socially "a genuine liberal", although he retains a "Tory element" to his personality through his "love of existing institutions, and a recognition of the inevitability of hierarchy".[744] Stuart Reid, Johnson's colleague at The Spectator, described the latter's views as being those of a "liberal libertarian".[745] In 2019, reacting to reports in The Sun, that Johnson had told cabinet colleagues he was "basically a Brexity Hezza", former deputy leader of the Conservative Party Michael Heseltine said Johnson "has no right to call himself a one-nation Conservative" and wrote: "I fear that any traces of liberal conservatism that still exist within the prime minister have long since been captured by the rightwing, foreigner-bashing, inward-looking view of the world that has come to characterise his fellow Brexiters."[746] Environment Johnson spoke about climate action at the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow on 1 November 2021 According to TheyWorkForYou, Johnson has "generally voted against" what it described as "measures to prevent climate change" while an MP.[747][748][749] While Mayor of London, Johnson expressed climate skeptical views in several columns.[750][748][751] In two Daily Telegraph columns published in 2012 and 2013, he conflated the distinction between weather and climate and highlighted a factually incorrect claim by weather forecaster and conspiracy theorist Piers Corbyn that reduced solar activity could lead to a "mini-Ice Age".[747][751] Bloomberg suggested that Johnson's interest in climate change increased after becoming Prime Minister, and suggested this could have been influenced by his wife Carrie Symonds and father Stanley Johnson, who are both environmental campaigners.[752] It was reported in 2022 that Johnson was convinced of the scientific consensus on climate change following a briefing by the chief scientist of the Met Office in January 2020, and subsequently made the issue a priority for his government.[750] In 2019 and 2020, Johnson expressed support for the UK to have "net-zero" greenhouse gas emissions by 2050[753] and spoke about increasing ambition for mitigating climate change through carbon capture and storage[754] and a renewable energy transition.[755] During the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Johnson called for greater efforts towards climate change mitigation,[756] and welcomed the prospect of coal phase-out.[757] Immigration and the European Union Johnson with EU Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker, 16 September 2019 Purnell believed it was the influence of Johnson's maternal family, the left-wing Fawcetts, that led to him developing "a genuine abhorrence of racial discrimination".[758] In 2003, Johnson said of the EU, "I am not by any means an ultra-Eurosceptic. In some ways, I am a bit of a fan of the European Union. If we did not have one, we would invent something like it."[759] As Mayor of London, Johnson was known as a supporter of immigration.[759] From 2009, he advocated a referendum on Britain's EU membership.[759][760][761] In 2018, during the Brexit negotiations, he called for Britain to leave the Single Market[759] and advocated a more liberal approach to immigration than that of Prime Minister Theresa May.[762] He stated many people believed that Britain's EU membership had led to the suppression of the wages of its "indigenous" people and said the EU was intent on creating a "superstate" that would seek to rob Britain of its sovereignty.[759] In 2019, Johnson said he would take Britain out of the EU on 31 October whether there was a trade deal in place or not.[763] Johnson also stated his opposition to a referendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement.[764] On 19 August 2019, Johnson wrote a letter to the EU and asked for the removal of the "backstop" accord, which had previously been agreed and signed by Theresa May during her premiership. The president of the European Council, Donald Tusk, rejected the proposal.[765] On 26 August 2019, Johnson said that Britain would not pay £39 billion for the withdrawal agreement were the UK to leave without a deal on 31 October. The European Parliament Brexit coordinator Guy Verhofstadt said there would be no further negotiation on the trade deal unless the UK agreed to pay the entire sum.[766][needs update] Unionism and devolution Speaking in Northern Ireland, Johnson described himself as a "fervent and passionate unionist".[767] He proposed building a bridge or tunnel between Scotland and Northern Ireland, but has since scrapped this initiative.[768] The devolved administrations have criticised the Internal Market Bill for its re-centralisation of control over commerce, reversing the devolution of power in the United Kingdom.[769] Public image Johnson posing with an Aston Martin painted with the Union Flag in 2017 Often known simply as Boris,[770] Johnson has attracted a variety of nicknames, including "BoJo", a portmanteau of his forename and surname.[771] Biographer Sonia Purnell described his public persona as "brand Boris", noting he developed it while at the University of Oxford.[772] Max Hastings referred to this public image as a "façade resembling that of P. G. Wodehouse's Gussie Fink-Nottle, allied to wit, charm, brilliance and startling flashes of instability",[773] while political scientist Andrew Crines stated Johnson displayed "the character of a likable and trustworthy individual with strong intellectual capital".[774] Private Eye editor Ian Hislop has defined him as "Beano Boris" due to his perceived comical nature, saying: "He's our Berlusconi ... He's the only feel-good politician we have, everyone else is too busy being responsible."[775] To the journalist Dave Hill, Johnson was "a unique figure in British politics, an unprecedented blend of comedian, conman, faux subversive showman and populist media confection".[776] Johnson purposely cultivates a "semi-shambolic look",[777] for instance, by specifically ruffling his hair in a certain way when he makes public appearances.[778] Purnell described him as "a manic self-promoter" who has filled his life with "fun and jokes".[779] Described by Crines as "a joker",[774] Johnson has said that "humour is a utensil that you can use to sugar the pill and to get important points across".[779] Purnell wrote colleagues regularly expressed the view that Johnson used people to advance his own interests,[780] and Gimson wrote that Johnson was "one of the great flatterers of our times".[781] Purnell commented he deflected serious questions using "a little humour and a good deal of bravado".[782] According to Gimson, Johnson was "a humane man" who "could also be staggeringly inconsiderate of others" when pursuing his own interests.[783] Gimson added Johnson has "an excessive desire to be liked".[784] Boris Johnson pulling a cow. Johnson visiting a cow farm in Aberdeen in 2019. Biographer Sonia Purnell wrote in 2011:     Boris is an original—the opposite of a stereotype, the exception to the rule. Overweight and goosey-fleshed, he's the antithesis of an airbrushed pin-up. He resembles a 'human laundry-basket' and has a habit of forgetting to shower.[733] He is blessed with immense charisma, wit, sex appeal and celebrity gold dust; he is also recognised and loved by millions—although perhaps less so by many who have had to work closely with him (let alone depend on him). Resourceful, cunning and strategic, he can pull off serious political coups when the greater good happens to coincide with his personal advantage but these aspirations are rarely backed up by concrete achievements, or even detailed plans.[785] Gimson stated Johnson "has very bad manners. He tends to be late, does not care about being late, and dresses without much care."[786] Highly ambitious and very competitive, Johnson was, Gimson wrote, born "to wage a ceaseless struggle for supremacy".[787] He would be angered with those he thought insulted aspects of his personal life; for instance, when an article in The Telegraph upset Johnson, he emailed commissioning editor Sam Leith with the simple message "F*ck off and die."[788] Thus, according to Purnell, Johnson hides his ruthlessness "using bumbling, self-deprecation or humour",[789] and was a fan of "laddish banter and crude sexual references".[790] Laura Kuenssberg wrote in December 2021 that public perceptions of Johnson had been damaged by a series of controversies related to Westminster Christmas parties during the cvid-19 pandemic, Owen Paterson, and a Downing Street refurbishment.[791] On 14 February 2022, a month after a parliamentary inquiry found him guilty of bullying three members of staff,[792] Labour Party member and former Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow, appearing in a Sky News programme, "The Great Debate", described Johnson as "ritually dishonest" and the worst of the twelve prime ministers he had known.[793] Personal life Since Johnson was born in New York City to British parents, he first held British-American dual citizenship. In 2014, he acknowledged he was disputing a demand for capital gains tax from the US tax authorities on a property that he inherited in the United Kingdom,[794][795] which ultimately he paid.[796] In February 2015, he announced his intention to renounce his US citizenship to demonstrate his loyalty to the UK,[797] which he did in 2016.[798] Johnson has a knowledge of French, Italian, German, Spanish,[90] Latin, and Ancient Greek,[799] frequently employing and alluding to classical references in both his newspaper columns and his speeches.[772] His favourite film is The Godfather, due to "the multiple retribution killings at the end".[800] Purnell wrote that Johnson was a "highly evasive figure" when it came to his personal life,[801] who remained detached from others and who had very few if any intimate friends.[802] Among friends and family, Johnson is more commonly known as Al (short for his forename Alexander), rather than his middle name Boris.[803] In 2007, Johnson said he had smoked cannabis before he went to university.[804] He has also said he had used cocaine.[805] Johnson partakes in cycling, tennis and pilates, and was formerly an avid runner before having to give it up due to knee issues.[806] Johnson's weight has fluctuated throughout his career; he was considered obese in 2018 and overweight in 2020, and has spoken of making efforts to lose weight.[806][807] Johnson owns a £1.3 million buy-to-let townhouse in Camberwell, South London. According to HM Land Registry documents, he bought the four-bedroom property with his then-girlfriend Carrie Symonds in July 2019. The register of MPs' interests states that Johnson has a rental income of at least £10,000 a year.[808] Religion Johnson speaking at Westminster Abbey's Commonwealth Day Service, 2020 Johnson was baptised a Catholic and later confirmed into the Church of England,[52] but has said that his faith "comes and goes"[809] and that he is not a serious practising Christian.[810] In 2020, his son Wilfred was baptised Catholic, prompting suggestions that Johnson had returned to Catholicism.[811] Johnson and Symonds married in a Catholic ceremony at Westminster Cathedral on 29 May 2021.[812] To be married in the Catholic Church, Johnson needed to have his two previous marriages proven to be invalid by reason of lack of canonical form. Since he was baptised Catholic, but his previous weddings were not conferred by the Catholic Church, they are considered putatively invalid.[813][814] Johnson holds ancient Greek statesman and orator Pericles as a personal hero.[815][816] According to Johnson's biographer, Andrew Gimson, regarding ancient Greek and Roman polytheism: "it is clear that [Johnson] is inspired by the Romans, and even more by the Greeks, and repelled by the early Christians".[817] Johnson views secular humanism positively and sees it as owing more to the classical world than to Christian thinking.[818] However, in 2021, Johnson was asked if he held pre-Christian beliefs, which he denied, saying, "Christianity is a superb ethical system and I would count myself as a kind of very, very bad Christian[.] No disrespect to any other religions, but Christianity makes a lot of sense to me."[819] Relationships Children of Boris Johnson by Marina Wheeler Lara Lettice Johnson-Wheeler (b. 1993) Milo Arthur Johnson (b. 1995) Cassia Peaches Johnson (b. 1997) Theodore Apollo Johnson (b. 1999) by Helen Macintyre Stephanie Macintyre (b. 2009) by Carrie Symonds Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson (b. 2020) Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson (b. 2021) [820][821] Johnson with his then-fiancée Carrie Symonds at the 2020 Commonwealth Day service In 1987, Johnson married Allegra Mostyn-Owen, daughter of the art historian William Mostyn-Owen and Italian writer Gaia Servadio.[822] The couple's marriage ended in divorce or annulment in 1993[f] and 12 days later Johnson married Marina Wheeler, a barrister, daughter of journalist and broadcaster Charles Wheeler.[826] Five weeks later, Wheeler and Johnson's first child was born.[827][828] The Wheeler and Johnson families have known each other for decades,[829] and Marina Wheeler was at the European School, Brussels, at the same time as her future husband. They have four children: Lara Lettice, Milo Arthur, Cassia Peaches, and Theodore Apollo.[830] Between 2000 and 2004, Johnson had an affair with Spectator columnist Petronella Wyatt when he was its editor, resulting in a terminated pregnancy and a miscarriage.[177] In April 2006, the News of the World alleged that Johnson was having an affair with Guardian journalist Anna Fazackerley. The pair did not comment and shortly afterwards Johnson employed Fazackerley.[188][189] In 2009, Johnson fathered a daughter with Helen Macintyre, an arts consultant. In 2013, the Court of Appeal discharged an injunction banning reporting of his daughter's existence. The judge ruled the public had a right to know about Johnson's "reckless" behaviour.[226][831][832] There had been speculation that he may have had another child from an extramarital affair due to an appeal court judge stating in 2013, "the father's infidelities resulted in the conception of children on two occasions".[833] In September 2021, after years of obfuscation, Johnson stated that he had six children, thereby denying the existence of any further illegitimate children.[834] In September 2018, Johnson and Wheeler issued a statement confirming that after 25 years of marriage they had separated "several months ago", and had begun divorce proceedings.[835] They reached a financial settlement in February 2020,[836] and the divorce was finalised by November 2020.[837] In October 2020, Jennifer Arcuri, asked whether her 'friendship' with Johnson was in fact an affair, said "I think that goes without saying ... But I'm not going to talk about it."[838] In March 2021, she went into more detail about the alleged affair in an interview with the Sunday Mirror, saying it lasted from 2012 to 2016.[839][840] In 2019, Johnson was living with Carrie Symonds, the daughter of Matthew Symonds, co-founder of The Independent newspaper. Symonds had worked for the Conservative party since 2009 and worked on Johnson's 2012 campaign to be re-elected as mayor.[841] On 29 February 2020, Johnson and Symonds announced they had become engaged in late 2019, and that Symonds was expecting a baby in early summer.[842] Their son, Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson,[843] was born on 29 April 2020 at University College Hospital in London.[844][845] On 29 May 2021, Johnson married Symonds in a secret ceremony at Westminster Cathedral attended by 30 guests,[812][846] becoming the first prime minister to marry in office since Lord Liverpool married Mary Chester in 1822.[847] On 31 July 2021, it was announced that they were expecting their second child together after Carrie suffered a miscarriage earlier that year.[848] Their daughter, Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson,[849] was born on 9 December 2021 at an NHS London hospital.[850] Family and ancestors Johnson and his younger brother Leo in 2013 Johnson is the eldest of the four children of Stanley Johnson, a former Conservative member of the European Parliament and an employee of the European Commission and the World Bank, and the painter Charlotte Johnson Wahl (née Fawcett),[21] the daughter of Sir James Fawcett, a barrister[851][852] and president of the European Commission of Human Rights.[853] His younger siblings are Rachel Johnson, a writer and journalist; Leo Johnson, a partner specialising in sustainability at accountancy firm PricewaterhouseCoopers;[854] and Jo Johnson, ex-minister of state and former Conservative MP for Orpington, who resigned from his brother's government in September 2019[470] and is now a member of the House of Lords. Johnson's stepmother, Jenny, the second wife of his father Stanley, is the stepdaughter of Teddy Sieff, the former chairman of Marks & Spencer.[855] Having been a member of the Conservatives between 2008 and 2011, Rachel Johnson joined the Liberal Democrats in 2017.[856] She stood as a candidate for Change UK in the 2019 European Elections.[857] Johnson also has two half-siblings, Julia and Maximilian, through his father's later marriage to Jennifer Kidd.[858][859] Johnson's paternal grandfather, Wilfred Johnson, was an RAF pilot in Coastal Command during the Second World War.[860] Wilfred Johnson's father was the Ottoman Interior Minister and journalist Ali Kemal, who was a secular Muslim. Ali Kemal's father was a Turk with roots in Kalfat, a village in central Turkey, while his mother was a Circassian reputedly of slave origin.[861][862][863] His other paternal ancestry includes English, German and French; one of his German ancestors was said to be the illegitimate daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg and thus a descendant of George II of Great Britain.[864] This would make him and Elizabeth II sixth cousins twice removed. Through Mary of Teck's connection to Duke Frederick II Eugene of Württemberg, they would in that case also have a closer genealogical link as fifth cousins twice removed. Johnson's mother is the granddaughter of Elias Avery Lowe, a palaeographer, who was a Russian Jewish immigrant to the US,[865] and Pennsylvania-born Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter, a translator of Thomas Mann.[866] Through this family line, Johnson is a descendant in the seventh generation of Anna Catharina Bischoff, whose mummified corpse was found in 1975 and identified in 2018.[867][868] Referring to his varied ancestry, Johnson has described himself as a "one-man melting pot" with a combination of Abrahamic religious great-grandparents.[869] Johnson was also given the middle name "Boris" after a White Russian émigré named Boris Litwin, who was a friend of his parents.[20] An episode of Who Do You Think You Are? explored the German origins of his middle name Pfeffel.[5][870][871] Reception In 2011, Purnell described Johnson as "the most unconventional, yet compelling politician of the post-Blair era" and that he was "beloved by millions and recognised by all".[801] Giles Edwards and Jonathan Isaby commented Johnson appealed to "a broad cross-section of the public",[872] with his friends characterising him as a "Heineken Tory" who can appeal to voters that other Conservatives cannot (a reference to the Heineken beer advertisement).[10] Gimson expressed the view that "people love him because he makes them laugh",[9] noting that he had become "the darling of the Tory rank and file".[873] Yet, by July 2022 Johnson had a net popularity ration of -21%.[874] A protest following the Cambridge Analytica scandal, 29 March 2018 Purnell recognised that during the 2008 mayoral election he was "polarising opinions to the extreme",[875] with critics viewing him as "variously evil, a clown, a racist and a bigot".[14] Writing in The Guardian, journalist Polly Toynbee referred to him as a "jester, toff, self-absorbed sociopath and serial liar",[876] while Labour politician Hazel Blears called him "a nasty right-wing elitist, with odious views and criminal friends".[12] He was accused of sexism and homophobia by social media users and members of the LGBT community after referring to Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn as "a big girl's blouse"[877][878] and former prime minister David Cameron as a "girly swot".[879] Cameron has said of Johnson: "The thing about the greased piglet is that he manages to slip through other people's hands where mere mortals fail."[880] The nickname "greased piglet" later gained wide currency in the news media, following the Chris Pincher scandal.[881] From 2016, Johnson evoked comparisons (both ideological and physical) with United States President Donald Trump.[740][741][882][742] In June 2016, Nick Clegg described him as "like Donald Trump with a thesaurus",[883] while fellow Conservative MP Kenneth Clarke described him as a "nicer Donald Trump".[884] Trump acknowledged the comparison, saying British people refer to Johnson as "Britain Trump".[885] Johnson was critical of Trump on several occasions before Trump's election;[313][886] he praised Trump as president,[887] but disagreed with some of his policies.[888][889] Johnson has been described as a divisive and controversial figure in British politics.[890][7][8] In 2018, The Economist described Johnson as "the most irresponsible politician the country has seen for many years".[891] In 2019, The Irish Times described him as "a deeply polarising figure, cherished by many older Conservatives but viewed by others as a serial liar and an amoral opportunist who sold Brexit to the British people on the basis of false promises".[16] In 2019, Johnson's former boss at The Daily Telegraph Max Hastings described him as "a brilliant entertainer", but accused him of "[caring] for no interest save his own fame and gratification", criticised his leadership abilities and described him as "unfit for national office".[892] Lying Johnson has been accused of lying or making untruthful or misleading statements throughout his career,[893] and has been accused of making many false and misleading statements both as a politician and as a journalist.[894][895] BBC News described this as a strategy to "bamboozle the listener with a blizzard of verbiage",[896] and a 2021 analysis in The Atlantic suggested Johnson's communication style was a honed political skill that contributed to his popularity.[742] In 2019, The Independent listed his "most notorious untruths", which included fabricating a quote whilst at The Times for which he was sacked, creating euromyths while working for The Daily Telegraph in Brussels, misrepresenting events during the Hillsborough disaster while the editor of The Spectator, lying to Michael Howard about his extramarital affair and promising that leaving the EU would provide £350 million per week for the NHS.[897] The Guardian noted that Johnson "almost never corrects the record in the chamber" and that while Johnson's spokespeople insist he follows the Ministerial Code, which annexes the Nolan Principles recommending that "Holders of public office should be truthful", 10 Downing Street "will sometimes acknowledge that an error was made, but more usually brushes aside the complaint or argues that Johnson was misunderstood".[898] Writing in the Times Literary Supplement, the scholar and former politician Rory Stewart observed that Johnson is "the most accomplished liar in public life. Perhaps the best liar ever to serve as prime minister. He has mastered the use of error, omission, exaggeration, diminution, equivocation and flat denial. He has perfected casuistry, circumlocution, false equivalence and false analogy. He is equally adept at the ironic jest, the fib and the grand lie; the weasel word and half-truth; the hyperbolic lie, the obvious lie and the bullsh*t."[899][900][901][902] In 2021, the political journalist and author Peter Oborne published a book about the lies told by Johnson, in which he wrote "I have never encountered a senior British politician who lies and fabricates so regularly, so shamelessly and so systematically as Boris Johnson".[903] Opposition MPs Dawn Butler and Ian Blackford have both openly called Johnson a liar in the House of Commons.[904][905] Laura Kuenssberg, political editor for BBC News, noted that it was "rare for opposition parties to accuse a prime minister, on the record, of lying".[896] In January 2022, Labour leader Keir Starmer accused Johnson of lying about a Downing Street party during lockdown in May 2020.[906] Speaking in the Commons on 31 January 2022, Johnson made a false accusation against Starmer about not prosecuting the serial sex offender Jimmy Savile when Starmer was Director of Public Prosecutions.[907][908][909] In April 2022 a poll by JLPartners found voters most frequently described the prime minister as a, 'liar' followed by, 'incompetent' and, 'untrustworthy'. Only 16% of respondents described Johnson with positive language while over 70% used negative language.[910] Allegations of racism and Islamophobia See also: Racism in the UK Conservative Party and Islamophobia in the UK Conservative Party (1997–present) Writing for the Telegraph in 2002, Johnson referred to a visit by then prime minister Tony Blair: "What a relief it must be for Blair to get out of England. It is said that the Queen has come to love the Commonwealth, partly because it supplies her with regular cheering crowds of flag-waving piccaninnies", in the same article he referred to African people as having "watermelon smiles".[911] In his 2004 comic novel Seventy-Two Virgins, Johnson described the thoughts of a black parking inspector who had been subjected to racist abuse: "Faced with such disgusting behaviour, some traffic wardens respond with a merciless taciturnity. The louder the rant of the traffic offenders, the more acute are the wardens' feelings of pleasure that they, the stakeless, the outcasts, the niggers, are a valued part of the empire of law, and in a position to chastise the arrogance and selfishness of the indigenous people." In the same book, the narrator refers to the media being controlled by Jewish oligarchs.[912] According to Dave Hill in The Guardian, Johnson's views on Islam have evolved. After the 2005 bombings, he questioned the loyalty of British Muslims and said Islamophobia was a "natural reaction". But by 2008, he blamed terrorism on a minority of Muslims who distort the Qur'an. And in 2009, he urged Britons to visit their local mosques and learn more about Islam.[913] In August 2018, The Daily Telegraph published a satirical article by Johnson criticising the then newly implemented Danish law against the wearing of the burqa or niqāb. In it, he defended the right of women to wear whatever they chose. He agreed the burqa is oppressive and that "it is weird and bullying to expect women to cover their faces" and also commented that he could "find no scriptural authority for the practice in the Koran" and that it seemed "absolutely ridiculous that people should choose to go around looking like letter boxes" and that "[i]f a female student turned up at school or at a university lecture looking like a bank robber" that he "should feel fully entitled—like Jack Straw—to ask her to remove it so that [he] could talk to her properly."[914] The Muslim Council of Britain (MCM) accused Johnson of "pandering to the far right", while Conservative peer Baroness Warsi accused him of dog-whistle politics.[915][916] Several senior Conservatives, including May, called on Johnson to apologise.[917][918] Others, such as MP Nadine Dorries, argued that his comments did not go far enough and that face veils should be banned.[919] A Sky News poll found 60% thought Johnson's comments were not racist, to 33% who did; 48% thought he should not apologise, while 45% thought he should.[920] An independent panel was set up to review Johnson's comments.[921] In December, the panel cleared him of wrongdoing, stating that while his language could be considered "provocative", he was "respectful and tolerant" and was fully entitled to use "satire" to make his point.[922] In September 2019, Labour MP Tanmanjeet Singh Dhesi called on Johnson to apologise for the comments he had made about burqa-wearing Muslim women in the Telegraph. Johnson declined to apologise, stating that his remarks had come as part of a "strong liberal defence of everybody's right to wear whatever they want."[923] Depictions See also: Category:Cultural depictions of Boris Johnson      This section contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (February 2022) The political career of Johnson has been the subject of several television docudramas:     Stuart McQuarrie in the 2005 television film A Very Social Secretary[924]     Christian Brassington in the More4 drama documentary When Boris Met Dave[925]     Will Barton in the 2017 BBC-produced drama Theresa vs. Boris: How May Became PM[926][927]     Richard Goulding in the 2019 HBO and Channel 4 drama Brexit: The Uncivil War[928][929]     Sir Kenneth Branagh in the 2022 Sky Atlantic television drama This England[930][931] Johnson's bumbling mannerisms and distinctive hairstyle have also made him the subject of parody:     In the 2008–2012 children's TV cartoon series Ben and Holly's Little Kingdom, the mayor of Fairy Town, voiced by Alexander Armstrong, is based on Johnson, who was mayor of London at the time.     Johnson is voiced by Lewis MacLeod in the fourth and fifth series of 2DTV[932]     MacLeod also voices Johnson in Newzoids[933]     Johnson is portrayed as half-man and half dog, who would engage in acts of canine behaviour, chasing his tail rather than answering questions, in Headcases. He is voiced by Jon Culshaw[934]     In 2019, James Corden portrayed Johnson in a sketch on Saturday Night Live[935]     In the 2020 revival of Spitting Image, Johnson's puppet is voiced by Matt Forde[936] Johnson has been the subject of British music and music media:     Singer Robbie Williams portrays Boris Johnson in the music video for his 2020 festive single "Can't Stop Christmas"[937]     Johnson was the focus of 2020 song "Boris Johnson Is a F*cking C*nt" by Kunt and the Gang,[938] which reached number five on the UK Singles Chart.[939] Honours     Honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LLD) from Brunel University London, 2007[940]     Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Institute of British Architects (Hon FRIBA),[941] 2011[942]     Honorary Australian of the Year in the UK, 26 January 2014[943][944]     Sworn in as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council on 15 July 2016, upon his appointment as Foreign Secretary. This gave him the honorific title "The Right Honourable" for life.[945]     Medical Education Ig Nobel Prize, 2020.[946]     Honorary Citizen of Odesa, 2 July 2022[947][948] Works     Friends, Voters, Countrymen (HarperCollins, 2001) ISBN 978-0-00-711913-4     Johnson's Column (Continuum International – Academi, 2003) ISBN 978-0-8264-6855-0     Lend Me Your Ears (HarperCollins, 2003) ISBN 978-0-00-717224-5     Seventy-Two Virgins (HarperCollins, 2004) ISBN 978-0-00-719590-9     Aspire Ever Higher / University Policy for the 21st century (Politeia, 2006)     The Dream of Rome (HarperCollins, 2006) ISBN 978-0-00-722441-8     Have I Got Views For You (HarperPerennial, 2006) ISBN 978-0-00-724220-7     Life in the Fast Lane: The Johnson Guide to Cars (HarperPerennial, 2007) ISBN 978-0-00-726020-1     The Perils of the Pushy Parents: A Cautionary Tale (HarperPress 2007) ISBN 978-0-00-726339-4     Johnson's Life of London (HarperPress 2011) ISBN 978-0-00-741893-0     The Churchill Factor (Hodder & Stoughton 2014) ISBN 978-1-44-478302-5 See also     Electoral history of Boris Johnson     Premiership of Boris Johnson     Racism in the UK Conservative Party § Accusations against Boris Johnson Notes Deputised as First Secretary of State between July 2019 and September 2021; as Deputy Prime Minister since September 2021. Formally, Parliament is prorogued by the monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) on the advice of the prime minister; it is a common legal fiction in the UK that many executive functions of the prime minister are formally carried out by the monarch on the prime minister's "advice", which is effectively the legal instrument by which the prime minister carries out the function. It was this advice of Johnson's that was ruled unlawful, not the actions of the Queen.[6] Commission Regulation (EC) No. 2257/94 introduced the requirement for bananas to be "free from malformation or abnormal curvature"; different standards applied to different classes of banana.[95] The EU introduced limits on the power of vacuum cleaners in 2014.[97][98] This was a reduction on the 2035 target set in February that year, which brought forward the previous deadline of 2040.[655]     Sources differ on whether the marriage ended in divorce[823][824] or with an annulment.[107][825] References Footnotes "Uxbridge & South Ruislip". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 November 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019. Croucher, Shane (23 July 2019). "Britain's new prime minister was a U.S. citizen for decades—until the IRS caught up with him". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2020. Grylls, George (9 December 2021). "Boris Johnson to take time off with Carrie after birth of their second baby". The Times. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2021. "Boris and Carrie Johnson announce name of new daughter". BBC News. 16 December 2021. Archived from the original on 16 December 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021. "Boris Johnson". Who Do You Think You Are?. 20 August 2008. BBC. R (on the application of Miller) (Appellant) v The Prime Minister (Respondent), 12 (Supreme Court of the United Kingdom 2019).Text Davies, Guy (23 July 2019). "Meet Boris Johnson: The UK's controversial new prime minister". ABC News. Archived from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021. Blitz, James (23 July 2019). "Why is Boris Johnson such a divisive figure?". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2021. Gimson 2012, p. 20. Kirkup, James (7 January 2015). "Boris Johnson goes looking for Conservative friends in the north". The Telegraph. London. 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"Boris Johnson facing questions over relationship with ex-model Jennifer Arcuri". The Independent. Retrieved 26 September 2019. Coates, Sam (25 September 2019). "Boris Johnson breaks silence on relationship with entrepreneur Jennifer Arcuri". Sky News. "Boris Johnson Facing Questions over Giving Public Money to American Woman". HuffPost. 22 September 2019. Weaver, Matthew (22 September 2019). "Boris Johnson urged to justify 'awarding public funds to close friend'". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 September 2019. "PM's links to Arcuri referred to police watchdog". BBC News. 27 September 2019. Townsend, Mark (10 November 2019). "Fury as decision on police inquiry into PM shelved until after election". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 November 2019. Weaver, Matthew (21 May 2020). "Boris Johnson will not face criminal inquiry over Jennifer Arcuri". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 May 2020. "Boris Johnson calls London St Patrick's day event lefty Sinn Féin crap". The Belfast Telegraph. 11 February 2012. Hennessy, Mark (13 March 2012). "Johnson apologises to London Irish for St Patrick's Day slur". The Irish Times. Dublin. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 13 March 2012. Williams, Rob (25 February 2013). "Video: 'Great supine protoplasmic invertebrate jellies!' – Boris Johnson's parting shot at London Assembly members after they vote NOT to grill him over budget cuts". The Independent. London. Retrieved 21 May 2013. Topping, Alexandra (8 July 2013). "Boris Johnson criticised for suggesting women go to university to find husband". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 16 July 2013. Wright, Oliver (8 July 2013). "Boris Johnson gaffe: Why do women go to university? To find men to marry ..." The Independent. London. Retrieved 16 July 2013. Kampfner, John (3 November 2014). "The Churchill Factor review – Boris Johnson's flawed but fascinating take on his hero". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 July 2016. "Boris Johnson's most controversial foreign insults". BBC Newsbeat. 14 July 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2018. Ross, Tim (15 May 2016). "Boris Johnson: The EU wants a superstate, just as Hitler did". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 5 May 2021. Crerar, Pippa (25 February 2014). "Mayor accused of having too few women at the top". Evening Standard. p. 4. Waugh, Paul (9 December 2015). "Boris slams Trump: he's 'out of his mind'". HuffPost. Retrieved 25 August 2019. Dathan, Matt (9 December 2015). "Boris Johnson says Donald Trump 'betrays a stupefying ignorance that makes him unfit to be US President'". The Independent. Retrieved 25 August 2019. Horton, Helena (8 December 2015). "Boris Johnson: 'The only reason I wouldn't visit some parts of New York is the real risk of meeting Donald Trump'". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 14 December 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2021. McCann, Kate (21 March 2016). "Boris Johnson: 'I was mistaken for Donald Trump'". The Telegraph. 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"Business Transacted and Orders Approved at the Privy Council Held by the Queen at Buckingham Palace on 15th July 2016" (PDF). The Government of the United Kingdom. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2022. Tanne, Janice Hopkins (18 September 2020). "Donald Trump, Boris Johnson, and other leaders win Ig Nobel awards for teaching people about life and death". BMJ. 370: m3675. doi:10.1136/bmj.m3675. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 32948527. S2CID 221766743. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022. "Boris Johnson becomes honorary citizen of Odesa – Trukhanov". Interfax-Ukraine. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.     Kilner, James (2 July 2022). "Boris Johnson named honorary citizen of Odesa for helping Ukraine". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022. Sources     Bower, Tom (2021). Boris Johnson: The Gambler. Random House. ISBN 978-0753554920.     Crines, Andrew S. (2013). "Why did Boris Johnson win the 2012 mayoral election?". Public Policy and Administration Research. 3 (9): 1–7.     Edwards, Giles; Isaby, Jonathan (2008). Boris v. Ken: How Boris Johnson Won London. London: Politico's. ISBN 978-1-84275-225-8.     Gimson, Andrew (2012). Boris: The Rise of Boris Johnson (2nd ed.). Simon & Schuster.     Hill, Dave (2016). Zac Versus Sadiq: The Fight to Become London Mayor. Double Q. ISBN 978-1-911079-20-0. Retrieved 30 July 2022.     Hosken, Andrew (2008). Ken: The Ups and Downs of Ken Livingstone. Arcadia Books. ISBN 978-1-905147-72-4. Retrieved 30 July 2022.     Purnell, Sonia (2011). Just Boris: Boris Johnson: The Irresistible Rise of a Political Celebrity. London: Aurum Press Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84513-665-9. Further reading     Gimson, Andrew. Boris: The Adventures of Boris Johnson (Simon and Schuster, 2012).     Dale, Iaian. The Little Book of Boris. (Harriman House Ltd., 2007) ISBN 978-1-905641-64-2     Hayton, Richard. "Conservative Party Statecraft and the Johnson Government." Political Quarterly (2021). online     Heppell, Timothy, and Thomas McMeeking. "The Conservative Party Leadership Transition from Theresa May to Boris Johnson: Party Popularity and Leadership Satisfaction." Representation 57.1 (2021): 59–73.     Johnson, Stanley (2009). Stanley I Presume. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-0-00-729673-6. Retrieved 30 July 2022.     O'Toole, Fintan, "The King of Little England", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVIII, no. 10 (10 June 2021), pp. 44–46.     Vasudevan, A. The Thinking Man's Idiot: The Wit and Wisdom of Boris Johnson (New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd., 2008) ISBN 978-1-84773-359-7     Worthy, Ben, Mark Bennister, and Max W. Stafford. "Rebels leading London: the mayoralties of Ken Livingstone and Boris Johnson compared." British Politics 14.1 (2019): 23–43. excerpt External links     Official website Edit this at Wikidata     Official website     Profile at Parliament of the United Kingdom     Contributions in Parliament at Hansard     Appearances on C-SPAN     Boris Johnson at IMDb     Works by or about Boris Johnson in libraries (WorldCat catalog)     Boris Johnson, columnist — The Daily Telegraph     Boris Johnson on the Muck Rack journalist listing site Edit this at Wikidata     Portraits of Boris Johnson at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata     vte Boris Johnson     Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (2019–present) Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2016–2018) Mayor of London (2008–2016) Premiership     First ministry         2019 Conservative Party leadership election List of departures 45th G7 summit Prorogation controversy Suspension of rebel Conservative MPs Second ministry         List of departures 2020 cabinet reshuffle 2021 cabinet reshuffle EU withdrawal agreement         Northern Ireland Protocol cvid-19 pandemic         government response lockdown vaccinations contracts Dominic Cummings scandal Partygate Death and funeral of the Duke of Edinburgh Downing Street refurbishment controversy 2021 State Opening of Parliament 47th G7 summit Evacuations from Afghanistan COP26 Irish Sea Bridge feasibility study Owen Paterson scandal         Parliamentary second jobs controversy Levelling-up policy         Growth deals White Paper Great British Railways Integrated Rail Plan Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU         Trade and Cooperation Agreement UK cost of living crisis Rwanda asylum plan 2022 State Opening of Parliament 2022 Conservative Party confidence vote Chris Pincher scandal 2022 government crisis         2022 cabinet reshuffle 2022 Conservative Party leadership election 2022 vote of confidence in the Johnson ministry Resignation Honours     International trips Brexit Minister for the Union Commonwealth Chair-in-Office (2019–2022)      Boris Johnson official portrait (cropped).jpg Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg Mayoralty     "Boris Island" "Boris Bikes" New Routemaster 2011 London riots London Cable Car 2012 Summer Olympics 2012 Summer Paralympics Garden Bridge Night Tube Jennifer Arcuri Politics         Political positions Electoral history Conservative Party Henley Uxbridge and South Ruislip Elections         2008 (Mayoral) 2012 (Mayoral) 2019 (General) 2021 (Local) 2022 (Local) Books         Friends, Voters, Countrymen (2002) Seventy-Two Virgins (2004) The Dream of Rome (2006) The Churchill Factor (2014) Cultural depictions         Headcases (2008 TV series) When Boris Met Dave (2009) Brexit: The Uncivil War (2019) Spitting Image (2020 TV series) Greased piglet Family         Allegra Mostyn-Owen (first wife) Marina Wheeler (second wife) Carrie Johnson (third wife) Lara Johnson-Wheeler (daughter) Stanley Johnson (father) Charlotte Fawcett (mother) Rachel Johnson (sister) Jo Johnson (brother) Edmund Fawcett (uncle) James Fawcett (grandfather) Ali Kemal (great-grandfather) Elias Avery Lowe (great-grandfather) H. 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        Liberal Democrats         Right to Vote Timeline Bloomberg speech    Jan 2013 European Parliament election    May 2014 2015 general election    May 2015 Renegotiation begins    Jun 2015 Referendum Act passed    Dec 2015 Renegotiation concluded    Feb 2016 Referendum held    Jun 2016 Theresa May becomes PM    Jul 2016 Article 50 judgement    Jan 2017 Brexit plan presented    Feb 2017 Notification Act passed    Mar 2017 Article 50 invoked    Mar 2017 Repeal Bill plan presented    Mar 2017 2017 general election    Jun 2017 Brexit negotiations begin    Jun 2017 Withdrawal Act passed    Jun 2018 Chequers plan presented    Jul 2018 Withdrawal agreement plan presented    July 2018 Withdrawal agreement released    Nov 2018 Meaningful votes    Jan–Mar 2019 Brexit delayed until 12 April    Mar 2019 Cooper–Letwin Act passed    Apr 2019 Brexit delayed until 31 October    Apr 2019 European Parliament election    May 2019 Boris Johnson becomes PM    Jul 2019 Prorogation and annulment    Aug–Sep 2019 Benn Act passed    Sep 2019 Withdrawal agreement revised    Oct 2019 Brexit delayed until 31 January    Oct 2019 2019 general election    Dec 2019 Agreement Act passed    Jan 2020 UK leaves the EU    Jan 2020 Implementation period begins    Jan 2020 UK–EU trade deal agreed    Dec 2020 Future Relationship Act passed    Dec 2020 Implementation period ends    Dec 2020 New EU–UK relationship begins    Jan 2021 UK–EU trade deal ratified    Apr 2021 flag EU portal · flag UK portal     vte Part of a series of articles on UK membership of the European Union (1973–2020) United Kingdom EU.svg Accession 1975 referendum Treaty amendments MEPs for UK constituencies Officials and bodies Issues and events Withdrawal flag EU portal · flag UK portal     vte The United Kingdom in orange; the European Union (27 member states) in blue: a representation of the result of Brexit Brexit (/ˈbrɛksɪt, ˈbrɛɡzɪt/;[1] a portmanteau of "British exit") was the withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU) at 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020 (00:00 CET).[note 1] The UK is the only sovereign country to have left the EU.[note 2] The UK had been a member state of the EU and its predecessor the European Communities (EC) since 1 January 1973. Following Brexit, EU law and the Court of Justice of the European Union no longer have primacy over British laws, except in select areas in relation to Northern Ireland.[2] The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 retains relevant EU law as domestic law, which the UK can now amend or repeal. Under the terms of the Brexit withdrawal agreement, Northern Ireland continues to participate in the European Single Market in relation to goods, and to be a de facto member of the EU Customs Union.[3][4] The EU and its institutions have developed gradually since their establishment and during the 47 years of British membership, and grew to be of significant economic and political importance to the UK. Throughout the period of British membership, Eurosceptic groups had existed, opposing aspects of the EU and its predecessors. Labour prime minister Harold Wilson's pro-EC government held a referendum on continued EC membership in 1975, in which 67.2 per cent of those voting chose to stay within the bloc, but no further referendums were held during the subsequent process of European integration, aimed at "ever closer union", embodied in the Treaties of Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nice and Lisbon. As part of a campaign pledge to win votes from Eurosceptics,[5] Conservative prime minister David Cameron promised to hold a referendum if his government was re-elected. His (pro-EU) government subsequently held a referendum on continued EU membership in 2016, in which voters chose to leave the EU with 51.9 per cent of the vote share. This led to his resignation, his replacement by Theresa May, and four years of negotiations with the EU on the terms of departure and on future relations, completed under a Boris Johnson government, with government control remaining with the Conservative Party in this period. The negotiation process was both politically challenging and deeply divisive within the UK, leading to two snap elections. One deal was rejected by the British parliament, causing great uncertainty and leading to postponement of the withdrawal date to avoid a no-deal Brexit. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020 after a withdrawal deal was passed by Parliament but continued to participate in many EU institutions (including the single market and customs union) during a one-year transition period in order to ensure frictionless trade until all details of the post-Brexit relationship were agreed and implemented. Trade deal negotiations continued within days of the scheduled end of the transition period and the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was signed on 30 December 2020. The effects of Brexit will in part be determined by the cooperation agreement, which provisionally applied from 1 January 2021, and formally came into force on 1 May 2021.[6] The broad consensus among economists is that it is likely to harm the UK's economy and reduce its real per capita income in the long term, and that the referendum itself damaged the economy.[7][8][9][10][11] It is likely to produce a large decline in immigration from countries in the European Economic Area (EEA) to the UK,[12] and poses challenges for British higher education and academic research.[13] Timeline Main article: Timeline of Brexit Following a UK-wide referendum on 23 June 2016, in which 51.89 per cent voted in favour of leaving the EU and 48.11 per cent voted to remain a member, Prime Minister David Cameron resigned. On 29 March 2017, the new British government led by Theresa May formally notified the EU of the country's intention to withdraw, beginning the process of Brexit negotiations. The withdrawal, originally scheduled for 29 March 2019, was delayed by the deadlock in the British parliament after the June 2017 general election, which resulted in a hung parliament in which the Conservatives lost their majority but remained the largest party. This deadlock led to three extensions of the UK's Article 50 process. The deadlock was resolved after a subsequent general election was held in December 2019. In that election, Conservatives who campaigned in support of a "revised" withdrawal agreement led by Boris Johnson won an overall majority of 80 seats. After the December 2019 election, the British parliament finally ratified the withdrawal agreement with the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020. The UK left the EU at the end of 31 January 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT). This began a transition period that ended on 31 December 2020 CET (11 p.m. GMT), during which the UK and EU negotiated their future relationship.[14] During the transition, the UK remained subject to EU law and remained part of the European Union Customs Union and the European Single Market. However, it was no longer part of the EU's political bodies or institutions.[15][16] The withdrawal had been advocated by hard Eurosceptics and opposed by pro-Europeanists and soft Eurosceptics, with both sides of the argument spanning the political spectrum. In 1973, the UK joined the European Communities (EC) – principally the European Economic Community (EEC) – and its continued membership was endorsed in the 1975 membership referendum. In the 1970s and 1980s, withdrawal from the EC was advocated mainly by the political left, e.g. in the Labour Party's 1983 election manifesto. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty, which founded the EU, was ratified by the British parliament in 1993 but was not put to a referendum. The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party led a rebellion over the ratification of the treaty and, with the UK Independence Party (UKIP) and the cross-party People's Pledge campaign, then led a collective campaign, particularly after the Treaty of Lisbon was also ratified by the European Union (Amendment) Act 2008 without being put to a referendum following a previous promise to hold a referendum on ratifying the abandoned European Constitution, which was never held. After promising to hold a second membership referendum if his government was elected, Conservative prime minister David Cameron held this referendum in 2016. Cameron, who had campaigned to remain, resigned after the result and was succeeded by Theresa May. On 29 March 2017, the British government formally began the withdrawal process by invoking Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union with permission from Parliament. May called a snap general election in June 2017, which resulted in a Conservative minority government supported by the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). UK–EU withdrawal negotiations began later that month. The UK negotiated to leave the EU customs union and single market. This resulted in the November 2018 withdrawal agreement, but the British parliament voted against ratifying it three times. The Labour Party wanted any agreement to maintain a customs union, while many Conservatives opposed the agreement's financial settlement, as well as the "Irish backstop" designed to prevent border controls between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and others sought to reverse Brexit through a proposed second referendum. On 14 March 2019, the British parliament voted for May to ask the EU to delay Brexit until June, and then later October.[17] Having failed to get her agreement approved, May resigned as Prime Minister in July and was succeeded by Boris Johnson. He sought to replace parts of the agreement and vowed to leave the EU by the new deadline. On 17 October 2019, the British Government and the EU agreed on a revised withdrawal agreement, with new arrangements for Northern Ireland.[18][19] Parliament approved the agreement for further scrutiny, but rejected passing it into law before the 31 October deadline, and forced the government (through the "Benn Act") to ask for a third Brexit delay. An early general election was then held on 12 December. The Conservatives won a large majority in that election, with Johnson declaring that the UK would leave the EU in early 2020.[20] The withdrawal agreement was ratified by the UK on 23 January and by the EU on 30 January; it came into force on 31 January 2020.[21][22][23] Terminology and etymology Main article: Glossary of Brexit terms Following the referendum of 23 June 2016, many new pieces of Brexit-related jargon entered popular use.[24][25] Background: the United Kingdom and EC/EU membership Main articles: Accession of the United Kingdom to the European Communities and United Kingdom membership of the European Union The Inner Six (blue) and Outer Seven (green) of European integration from 1961 until 1973.   EC Members (Inner Six)   EFTA Members (Outer Seven) When the UK first joined the European Communities (along with Denmark and Ireland) on 1 January 1973 it was one of just nine member states that made up the bloc at the time.   EC Members The "Inner Six" European countries signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951, establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). The 1955 Messina Conference deemed that the ECSC was a success, and resolved to extend the concept further, thereby leading to the 1957 Treaties of Rome establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In 1967, these became known as the European Communities (EC). The UK attempted to join in 1963 and 1967, but these applications were vetoed by the President of France, Charles de Gaulle.[26] Some time after de Gaulle resigned in 1969, the UK successfully applied for EC membership, and the Conservative prime minister Edward Heath signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972.[27] Parliament passed the European Communities Act later that year[28] and the UK joined Denmark and Ireland in becoming a member on 1 January 1973, without referendum.[29] During the 1970s and 1980s, the Labour Party was the more Eurosceptic of the two major parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. The 1983 Labour Party manifesto would even pledge to leave the then European Economic Community. Earlier on, Labour had won the February 1974 general election without a majority and then contested the subsequent October 1974 general election with a commitment to renegotiate Britain's terms of membership of the EC, believing them to be unfavourable, and then hold a referendum on whether to remain in the EC on the new terms.[30] Labour again won the election (this time with a small majority), and in 1975 the UK held its first ever national referendum, asking whether the UK should remain in the EC. Despite significant division within the ruling Labour Party,[31] all major political parties and the mainstream press supported continuing membership of the EC. On 5 June 1975, 67.2% of the electorate and all but two[32] British counties and regions voted to stay in;[33] support for the UK to leave the EC in 1975 appears unrelated to the support for Leave in the 2016 referendum.[34] The Labour Party campaigned in the 1983 general election on a commitment to withdraw from the EC without a referendum.[35] After their heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy.[35] In 1985, the second Margaret Thatcher government ratified the Single European Act—the first major revision to the Treaty of Rome—without a referendum.[citation needed] Comparison of results of 1975 and 2016 referendums In October 1990, under pressure from senior ministers and despite Thatcher's deep reservations, the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound sterling pegged to the deutschmark. Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister the following month, amid Conservative Party divisions arising partly from her increasingly Eurosceptic views. The UK and Italy were forced to withdraw from the ERM in September 1992, after the pound sterling and the lira came under pressure from currency speculation ("Black Wednesday").[36] Italy would soon rejoin but on a different band whilst the UK did not seek re entry and remained outside the ERM. On 1 November 1993, after the UK and the other eleven member states had ratified, the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty[37] compromise — in a post Cold War and German reunification — between member states seeking deeper integration and those wishing to retain greater national control in the economic and political union.[38] Denmark, France, and Ireland held referendums to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. In accordance with Constitution of the United Kingdom, specifically that of parliamentary sovereignty, ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, British constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum" because although MPs are entrusted with legislative power by the electorate, they are not given authority to transfer that power (the UK's previous three referendums all concerned this). Further, as the ratification of the treaty was in the manifestos of the three major political parties, voters opposed to ratification had no way to express it. For Bogdanor, while the ratification by the House of Commons might be legal, it would not be legitimate—which requires popular consent. The way in which the treaty was ratified, he judged, was "likely to have fundamental consequences both for British politics and for Britain's relationship with the [EC]."[39][40] This perceived democratic deficit, later, directly led to the formation of the Referendum Party and the UK Independence Party.[citation needed] Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom Main article: Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher Nigel Farage David Cameron Conservative prime ministers Margaret Thatcher (left) and David Cameron (right) used Eurosceptic rhetoric while being in favour of the UK's membership and the development of the European Single Market. Euroscepticism – and in particular the impact of the UK Independence Party (former leader Nigel Farage pictured centre) on the Conservatives' election results – contributed to Cameron's 2015–16 attempt to renegotiate the UK's EU membership, and ultimately the holding of the 2016 referendum. Thatcher, who had previously supported the common market and the Single European Act, in the Bruges speech of 1988 warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced Daniel Hannan, who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain; "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit", the Financial Times later wrote.[41] The vote to approve the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 triggered a strong Eurosceptic response, splitting the Conservative Party and leading to many past supporters forming alternative Eurosceptic parties. This included Sir James Goldsmith forming the Referendum Party in 1994 to contest the 1997 general election on a platform of providing a referendum on the nature of the UK's relationship with the rest of the EU.[42][43] The party fielded candidates in 547 constituencies at that election, and won 810,860 votes—2.6% of the total votes cast[44]—but failed to win a parliamentary seat because the vote was spread across the country. The Referendum Party disbanded after Goldsmith's death in 1997.[citation needed]. The UK Independence Party (UKIP), a Eurosceptic political party, was formed in response to Maastrict in 1993. In 1997, Nigel Farage took over the leadership of the party as a right-of-centre, populist movement in England.[45] Prior to 2013, the issue of EU membership never scored higher that 5% on surveys of voter priorities, polling just 6% in 2013[46] and 11% in 2014.[47] However, an increasing proportion of voters viewed immigration and asylum as of key importance.[48] By adopting a hardline anti-immigration platform and conflating the issue with EU membership, UKIP was able to achieve electoral success, reaching third place in the UK during the 2004 European elections, second place in the 2009 European elections and first place in the 2014 European elections, with 27.5% of the total vote. This was the first time since the 1910 general election that any party other than Labour or the Conservatives had taken the largest share of the vote in a nationwide election.[49] This electoral success and internal pressure, including from many of the remaining Maastricht Rebels within the ruling Conservative party, put pressure on leader and Prime Minister David Cameron, as potential voter defections to UKIP threatened defeat in the 2015 United Kingdom general election. This threat was emphasised by UKIP winning two by-elections (in Clacton and Rochester and Strood, triggered by defecting Conservative MPs) in 2014.[50] Opinion polls 1977–2015 Main article: Opinion polling for the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Both pro- and anti-EU views had majority support at different times from 1977 to 2015.[51] In the EC membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. Over the decades of UK-EU membership, Euroscepticism existed on both the left and right of British politics.[52][53][54] According to a statistical analysis published in April 2016 by Professor John Curtice of Strathclyde University, surveys showed an increase in Euroscepticism (broadly defined as a wish to leave the EU or stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU's powers) from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. The BSA survey for the period of July–November 2015 showed that 60% backed the option to continue as a member and 30% backed withdrawal.[55] Referendum of 2016 Main article: 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Negotiations for membership reform Main article: 2015–2016 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership In 2012, Prime Minister David Cameron initially rejected calls for a referendum on the UK's EU membership,[56] but then suggested the possibility of a future referendum to endorse his proposed renegotiation of Britain's relationship with the rest of the EU.[57] According to the BBC, "The prime minister acknowledged the need to ensure the UK's [renegotiated] position within the [EU] had 'the full-hearted support of the British people' but they needed to show 'tactical and strategic patience'."[58] On 23 January 2013, under pressure from many of his MPs and from the rise of UKIP, Cameron promised in his Bloomberg speech that a Conservative government would hold an in-or-out referendum on EU membership before the end of 2017, on a renegotiated package, if elected in the 7 May 2015 general election.[59] This was included in the Conservative Party manifesto for the election.[60][61] The Conservative Party won the election with a majority. Soon afterwards, the European Union Referendum Act 2015 was introduced into Parliament to enable the referendum. Cameron favoured remaining in a reformed EU, and sought to renegotiate on four key points: protection of the single market for non-eurozone countries, reduction of "red tape", exempting Britain from "ever-closer union", and restricting immigration from the rest of the EU.[62] In December 2015, opinion polls showed a clear majority in favour of remaining in the EU; they also showed support would drop if Cameron did not negotiate adequate safeguards[definition needed] for non-eurozone member states, and restrictions on benefits for non-UK EU citizens.[63] The outcome of the renegotiations was revealed in February 2016. Some limits to in-work benefits for new EU immigrants were agreed, but before they could be applied, a member state such as the UK would have to get permission from the European Commission and then from the European Council, which is composed of the heads of government of every member state.[64] In a speech to the House of Commons on 22 February 2016, Cameron announced a referendum date of 23 June 2016, and commented on the renegotiation settlement.[65] He spoke of an intention to trigger the Article 50 process immediately following a Leave vote and of the "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."[66] After the original wording for the referendum question was challenged,[67] the government agreed to change the official referendum question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?" Referendum result Main article: Results of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum In the referendum 51.89% voted in favour of leaving the EU (Leave), and 48.11% voted in favour of remaining a member of the EU (Remain).[68][69] After this result, Cameron resigned on 13 July 2016, with Theresa May becoming Prime Minister after a leadership contest. A petition calling for a second referendum attracted more than four million signatures,[70][71] but was rejected by the government on 9 July.[72] 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum Choice     Votes     % Leave the European Union     17,410,742     51.89 Remain a member of the European Union     16,141,241     48.11 Valid votes     33,551,983     99.92 Invalid or blank votes     25,359     0.08 Total votes     33,577,342     100.00 Registered voters and turnout     46,500,001     72.21 Source: Electoral Commission[73] National referendum results (without spoiled ballots) Leave: 17,410,742 (51.9%)     Remain: 16,141,241 (48.1%) ▲ Results by UK voting region (left) and by council district/unitary authority (GB) & UK Parliament constituency (NI) (right)   Leave   Remain Region     Electorate     Voter turnout, of eligible     Votes     Proportion of votes     Invalid votes Remain     Leave     Remain     Leave       East Midlands     3,384,299     74.2%     1,033,036     1,475,479     41.18%     58.82%     1,981       East of England     4,398,796     75.7%     1,448,616     1,880,367     43.52%     56.48%     2,329       Greater London     5,424,768     69.7%     2,263,519     1,513,232     59.93%     40.07%     4,453       North East England     1,934,341     69.3%     562,595     778,103     41.96%     58.04%     689       North West England     5,241,568     70.0%     1,699,020     1,966,925     46.35%     53.65%     2,682       Northern Ireland     1,260,955     62.7%     440,707     349,442     55.78%     44.22%     374       Scotland     3,987,112     67.2%     1,661,191     1,018,322     62.00%     38.00%     1,666       South East England     6,465,404     76.8%     2,391,718     2,567,965     48.22%     51.78%     3,427       South West England (inc Gibraltar)     4,138,134     76.7%     1,503,019     1,669,711     47.37%     52.63%     2,179       Wales     2,270,272     71.7%     772,347     854,572     47.47%     52.53%     1,135       West Midlands     4,116,572     72.0%     1,207,175     1,755,687     40.74%     59.26%     2,507       Yorkshire and the Humber     3,877,780     70.7%     1,158,298     1,580,937     42.29%     57.71%     1,937 Voter demographics and trends Further information: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit A 2017 study published in the journal Economic Policy showed that the Leave vote tended to be greater in areas which had lower incomes and high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing employment, and in which the population had fewer qualifications. It also tended to be greater where there was a large flow of Eastern European migrants (mainly low-skilled workers) into areas with a large share of native low-skilled workers.[74] Those in lower social grades (especially the working class) were more likely to vote Leave, while those in higher social grades (especially the upper middle class) more likely to vote Remain.[75][76][77] Studies found that the Leave vote tended to be higher in areas affected by economic decline,[78] high rates of suicides and drug-related deaths,[79] and austerity reforms introduced in 2010.[80] Studies suggest that older people were more likely to vote Leave, and younger people more likely to vote Remain.[81] According to Thomas Sampson, an economist at the London School of Economics, "Older and less-educated voters were more likely to vote 'leave' [...] A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters chose leave. [...] Leaving the European Union received support from across the political spectrum [...] Voting to leave the European Union was strongly associated with holding socially conservative political beliefs, opposing cosmopolitanism, and thinking life in Britain is getting worse."[82] Polling conducted by YouGov supported these conclusions, showing that factors such as age, political party affiliation, education, and household income were the primary factors indicating how people would vote. For example, Conservative Party voters were 61% likely to vote leave, compared to Labour Party voters, who were 35% likely to vote leave. Age was one of the biggest factors affecting whether someone would vote leave, with 64% of people over the age of 65 likely to vote leave, whereas 18-24 year olds were only 29% likely to vote leave. Education was another factor indicating voting likelihood: people with a GCSE or lower level of education were 70% likely to vote leave, whereas university graduates were only 32% likely to vote leave. Household income was another important factor, with households earning less than £20,000 62% likely to vote leave, compared to households earning £60,000 or more, which were only 35% likely to vote leave.[83] There were major variations in geographic support for each side. Scotland and Northern Ireland both returned majorities for remain, although these had a relatively small impact on the overall result as England has a much larger population. There were also significant regional differences within England, with most of London returning a majority remain vote, alongside urban centres in northern England such as Manchester and Liverpool, which returned remain majorities of 60% and 58% respectively. Opposite trends appeared in industrial and post-industrial areas of northern England, with areas such as North Lincolnshire and South Tyneside both heavily supporting leave.[84] Opinion polls found that Leave voters believed leaving the EU was "more likely to bring about a better immigration system, improved border controls, a fairer welfare system, better quality of life, and the ability to control our own laws", while Remain voters believed EU membership "would be better for the economy, international investment, and the UK's influence in the world." Polls found that the main reasons people voted Leave were "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK", and that leaving "offered the best chance for the UK to regain control over immigration and its own borders." The main reason people voted Remain was that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices."[85] Post-referendum investigations See also: European Union membership referendum § Investigations into campaigns, and Allegations of unlawful campaigning in the 2016 EU referendum Following the referendum, a series of irregularities related to campaign spending were investigated by the Electoral Commission, which subsequently issued a large number of fines. In February 2017, the main campaign group for the "Leave" vote, Leave.EU, was fined £50,000 for sending marketing messages without permission.[86] In December 2017, the Electoral Commission fined two pro-EU groups, the Liberal Democrats (£18,000) and Open Britain (£1,250), for breaches of campaign finance rules during the referendum campaign.[87] In May 2018, the Electoral Commission fined Leave.EU £70,000 for unlawfully overspending and inaccurately reporting loans from Arron Banks totalling £6 million.[88] Smaller fines were levelled against the pro-EU campaign group Best for Our Future and two trade union donors for inaccurate reporting.[89] In July 2018 Vote Leave was fined £61,000 for overspending, not declaring finances shared with BeLeave, and failing to comply with investigators.[90] In November 2017, the Electoral Commission launched a probe into claims that Russia had attempted to sway public opinion over the referendum using social media platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.[91] In February 2019, the parliamentary Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee called for an inquiry into "foreign influence, disinformation, funding, voter manipulation, and the sharing of data" in the Brexit vote.[92] In July 2020, Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament published a report which accused the UK government of actively avoiding investigating whether Russia interfered with public opinion. The report did not pass judgement over whether Russian information operations had an impact on the result.[93] Withdrawal process Further information: Withdrawal from the European Union Wikisource has original text related to this article: Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union Withdrawal from the European Union is governed by Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union. It was originally drafted by Lord Kerr of Kinlochard,[94] and introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon which entered into force in 2009.[95] The article states that any member state can withdraw "in accordance with its own constitutional requirements" by notifying the European Council of its intention to do so.[96] The notification triggers a two-year negotiation period, in which the EU must "negotiate and conclude an agreement with [the leaving] State, setting out the arrangements for its withdrawal, taking account of the framework for its future relationship with the [European] Union".[97] If no agreement is reached within the two years, the membership ends without an agreement, unless an extension is unanimously agreed among all EU states, including the withdrawing state.[97] On the EU side, the agreement needs to be ratified by qualified majority in the European Council, and by the European Parliament.[97] Invocation of Article 50 Main article: United Kingdom invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union Letter from Theresa May invoking Article 50 The 2015 Referendum Act did not expressly require Article 50 to be invoked,[97] but prior to the referendum, the British government said it would respect the result.[98] When Cameron resigned following the referendum, he said that it would be for the incoming prime minister to invoke Article 50.[99][100] The new prime minister, Theresa May, said she would wait until 2017 to invoke the article, in order to prepare for the negotiations.[101] In October 2016, she said Britain would trigger Article 50 in March 2017,[102] and in December she gained the support of MP's for her timetable.[103] In January 2017, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled in the Miller case that government could only invoke Article 50 if authorised by an act of parliament to do so.[104] The government subsequently introduced a bill for that purpose, and it was passed into law on 16 March as the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017.[105] On 29 March, Theresa May triggered Article 50 when Tim Barrow, the British ambassador to the EU, delivered the invocation letter to European Council President Donald Tusk. This made 29 March 2019 the expected date that UK would leave EU.[106][107] 2017 UK general election See also: 2017 United Kingdom general election A map presenting the results of the 2017 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each constituency, with Conservatives in blue, Labour in red, and SNP in yellow In April 2017, Theresa May called a snap general election, held on 8 June, in an attempt to "strengthen [her] hand" in the negotiations;[108] The Conservative Party, Labour and UKIP made manifesto pledges to implement the referendum, the Labour manifesto differing in its approach to Brexit negotiations, such as unilaterally offering permanent residence to EU immigrants.[109][110][111][112] The Liberal Democrat Party and the Green Party manifestos proposed a policy of remaining in the EU via a second referendum.[113][114][115] The Scottish National Party (SNP) manifesto proposed a policy of waiting for the outcome of the Brexit negotiations and then holding a referendum on Scottish independence.[116][117] The result produced an unexpected hung parliament, the governing Conservatives gained votes (but nevertheless lost seats and their majority in the House of Commons) and remained the largest party. Labour gained significantly on votes and seats, retaining its position as the second-largest party. The Liberal Democrats gained six seats despite a slight decrease in vote share compared with 2015. The Green Party kept its single MP while also losing national vote share. Losing votes and seats were the SNP, which lost 21 MPs, and UKIP, which suffered a −10.8% swing and lost its only MP. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Sinn Féin also made gains in votes and seats.[118] On 26 June 2017, Conservatives and the DUP reached a confidence and supply agreement whereby the DUP would back the Conservatives in key votes in the House of Commons over the course of the parliament. The agreement included additional funding of £1 billion for Northern Ireland, highlighted mutual support for Brexit and national security, expressed commitment to the Good Friday Agreement, and indicated that policies such as the state pension triple lock and Winter Fuel Payments would be maintained.[119][120] UK–EU negotiations in 2017 and 2018 Main article: Brexit negotiations Prior to the negotiations, May said that the British government would not seek permanent single market membership, would end ECJ jurisdiction, seek a new trade agreement, end free movement of people and maintain the Common Travel Area with Ireland.[121] The EU had adopted its negotiating directives in May,[122] and appointed Michel Barnier as Chief Negotiator.[123] The EU wished to perform the negotiations in two phases: first the UK would agree to a financial commitment and to lifelong benefits for EU citizens in Britain, and then negotiations on a future relationship could begin.[124] In the first phase, the member states would demand that the UK pay a "divorce bill", initially estimated as amounting to £52 billion.[125] EU negotiators said that an agreement must be reached between UK and the EU by October 2018.[126] Negotiations commenced on 19 June 2017.[123] Negotiating groups were established for three topics: the rights of EU citizens living in Britain and vice versa; Britain's outstanding financial obligations to the EU; and the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.[127][128][129] In December 2017, a partial agreement was reached. It ensured that there would be no hard border in Ireland, protected the rights of UK citizens in the EU and of EU citizens in Britain, and estimated the financial settlement to be £35–39 billion.[130] May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".[131] Following this partial agreement, EU leaders agreed to move on to the second phase in the negotiations: discussion of the future relationship, a transition period and a possible trade deal.[132] In March 2018, a 21-month transition period and the terms for it were provisionally agreed.[133] In June 2018, Irish Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said that there had been little progress on the Irish border question—on which the EU proposed a backstop, to come into effect if no overall trade deal had been reached by the end of the transition period—and that it was unlikely that there would be a solution before October, when the whole deal was to be agreed.[134] In July 2018, the British government published the Chequers plan, containing its aims for the future relationship that was to be determined in the negotiations. The plan sought to keep British access to the single market for goods, but not necessarily for services, while allowing for an independent trade policy.[135] The plan caused cabinet resignations, including those of Brexit Secretary David Davis[136] and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson.[137] May's agreement and failed ratification Main articles: Brexit withdrawal agreement and Parliamentary votes on Brexit Wikisource has original text related to this article: 2018 Draft withdrawal agreement On 13 November 2018, UK and EU negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement,[138] and May secured her Cabinet's backing of the deal the following day,[139] though Brexit Secretary Dominic Raab resigned over "fatal flaws" in the agreement.[140] It was expected that ratification in the British parliament would be difficult.[141][142][143] On 25 November, all 27 leaders of the remaining EU countries endorsed the agreement.[141][142] On 10 December 2018, the Prime Minister postponed the vote in the House of Commons on her Brexit deal. This came minutes after the Prime Minister's Office confirmed the vote would be going ahead.[144] Faced with the prospect of a defeat in the House of Commons, this option gave May more time to negotiate with Conservative backbenchers and the EU, even though they had ruled out further discussions.[145] The decision was met with calls from many Welsh Labour MPs for a motion of no confidence in the Government.[146] Also on 10 December 2018, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification of withdrawal, as long as it was still a member and had not agreed a withdrawal agreement. The decision to do so should be "unequivocal and unconditional" and "follow a democratic process".[147] If the British revoked their notification, they would remain a member of the EU under their current membership terms. The case was launched by Scottish politicians, and referred to the ECJ by the Scottish Court of Session.[148] The European Research Group (ERG), a research support group of Eurosceptic Conservative MPs, opposed the Prime Minister's proposed Withdrawal Agreement treaty. Its members objected strongly to the Withdrawal Agreement's inclusion of the Irish backstop.[149][150] ERG members also objected to the proposed £39 billion financial settlement with the EU and stated that the agreement would result in the UK's agreement to continuing to follow EU regulations in major policy areas; and to the continuing jurisdiction of the ECJ over interpretation of the agreement and of European law still applicable to the UK.[151][152] On 15 January 2019, the House of Commons voted 432 to 202 against the deal, which was the largest majority ever against a United Kingdom government.[153][154] Soon after, a motion of no confidence in Her Majesty's Government was tabled by the opposition,[155] which was rejected by 325 votes to 306.[156] On 24 February, Prime Minister May proposed that the next vote on the withdrawal agreement would be on 12 March 2019, 17 days away from the Brexit date.[157] On 12 March, the proposal was defeated by 391 votes to 242—a loss by 149 votes, down from 230 from when the deal had been proposed in January.[158] On 18 March 2019, the Speaker informed the House of Commons that a third meaningful vote could be held only on a motion that was significantly different from the previous one, citing parliamentary precedents going back to 1604.[159] The Withdrawal Agreement was brought back to the House without the attached understandings on 29 March.[160] The Government's motion of support for the Withdrawal Agreement was defeated by 344 votes to 286—a loss by 58 votes, down from 149 when the deal had been proposed on 12 March.[161] Article 50 extensions and Johnson's agreement On 20 March 2019, the Prime Minister wrote to European Council President Tusk requesting that Brexit be postponed until 30 June 2019.[162] On 21 March 2019, May presented her case to a European Council summit meeting in Brussels. After May left the meeting, a discussion amongst the remaining EU leaders resulted in the rejection of 30 June date and offered instead a choice of two new alternative Brexit dates. On 22 March 2019, the extension options were agreed between the British government and the European Council.[163] The first alternative offered was that if MPs rejected May's deal in the next week, Brexit would be due to occur by 12 April 2019, with, or without, a deal—or alternatively another extension be asked for and a commitment to participate in the 2019 European Parliament elections given. The second alternative offered was that if MPs approved May's deal, Brexit would be due to occur on 22 May 2019. The later date was the day before the start of European Parliament elections.[164] After the government deemed unwarranted the concerns over the legality of the proposed change (because it contained two possible exit dates) the previous day,[165] on 27 March 2019 both the Lords (without a vote)[166] and the Commons (by 441 to 105) approved the statutory instrument changing the exit date to 22 May 2019 if a withdrawal deal is approved, or 12 April 2019 if it is not.[167] The amendment was then signed into law at 12:40 p.m. the next day.[163] Following the failure of the British Parliament to approve the Withdrawal Agreement by 29 March, the UK was required to leave the EU on 12 April 2019. On 10 April 2019, late-night talks in Brussels resulted in a further extension, to 31 October 2019; Theresa May had again requested an extension only until 30 June. Under the terms of this new extension, if the Withdrawal Agreement were to be passed before October, Brexit would occur on the first day of the subsequent month. The UK would then be obligated to hold European Parliament elections in May, or leave the EU on 1 June without a deal.[168][169] In granting the Article 50 extensions, the EU adopted a stance of refusing to "reopen" (that is, renegotiate) the Withdrawal Agreement.[170] After Boris Johnson became prime minister on 24 July 2019 and met with EU leaders, the EU changed its stance. On 17 October 2019, following "tunnel talks" between UK and EU,[171] a revised withdrawal agreement was agreed on negotiators level, and endorsed by the British government and the EU Commission.[172] The revised deal contained a new Northern Ireland Protocol, as well as technical modifications to related articles.[18] In addition, the Political Declaration was also revised.[173] The revised deal and the political declaration was endorsed by the European Council later that day.[174] To come into effect, it needed to be ratified by the European Parliament and the Parliament of the United Kingdom.[175] The British Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal) (No. 2) Act 2019, which received Royal Assent on 9 September 2019, obliging the Prime Minister to seek a third extension if no agreement has been reached at the next European Council meeting in October 2019.[176] In order for such an extension to be granted if it is requested by the Prime Minister, it would be necessary for there to be unanimous agreement by all other heads of EU governments.[177] On 28 October 2019, the third extension was agreed to by the EU, with a new withdrawal deadline of 31 January 2020.[178] 'Exit day' in British law was then amended to this new date by statutory instrument on 30 October 2019.[179] 2019 UK general election See also: 2019 United Kingdom general election A map presenting the results of the 2019 United Kingdom general election, by party of the MP elected from each constituency. After Johnson was unable to induce Parliament to approve a revised version of the withdrawal agreement by the end of October, he chose to call for a snap election. Due to the fact three motions for an early general election under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds super majority for it to pass so instead, in order to circumvent the existing law, the Government introduced a "election bill" which only needed a simple majority of MPs to vote in favour into the House of Commons which was passed by 438–20, setting the election date for Thursday 12 December.[180] Opinion polls up to polling day showed a firm lead for the Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.[181] In the run-up to the general election on 12 December 2019 the Conservative Party pledged to leave the EU with the withdrawal agreement negotiated in October 2019. Labour promised to renegotiate aforementioned deal and hold a referendum, letting voters choose between the renegotiated deal and remain. The Liberal Democrats vowed to revoke Article 50, while the SNP intended to hold a second referendum, however, revoking Article 50 if the alternative was a no-deal exit. The DUP supported Brexit, but would seek to change parts related to Northern Ireland it was dissatisfied with. Plaid Cymru and the Green Party backed a second referendum, believing the UK should stay in the EU. The Brexit Party was the only major party running for election which wanted the UK to leave the EU without a deal.[182] The election produced a decisive result for Boris Johnson with the Conservatives winning 365 seats (gaining 47 seats) and an overall majority of 80 seats with Labour suffering their worst election defeat since 1935 after losing 60 seats to leave them with 202 seats and only a single seat in Scotland. The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats with their leader Jo Swinson losing her own seat. The Scottish National Party won 48 seats after gaining 14 seats in Scotland. The result broke the deadlock in the UK Parliament and ended the possibility of a referendum being held on the withdrawal agreement and ensured that the United Kingdom would leave the European Union on 31 January 2020. Ratification and departure Foreign and Commonwealth Office building illuminated in the colours of the Union Jack on 31 January 2020 Subsequently, the government introduced a bill to ratify the withdrawal agreement. It passed its second reading in the House of Commons in a 358–234 vote on 20 December 2019,[183] and became law on 23 January 2020 as the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020.[184] The withdrawal agreement received the backing of the constitutional committee in the European Parliament on 23 January 2020, setting expectation that the entire parliament would approve it in a later vote.[185][186][187] On the following day, Ursula von der Leyen and Charles Michel signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels, and it was sent to London where Boris Johnson signed it.[21] The European Parliament gave its consent to ratification on 29 January by 621 votes to 49.[188][22] Immediately after voting approval, members of the European Parliament joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne.[189] The Council of the European Union concluded EU ratification the following day.[190] On 31 January 2020 at 11 p.m. GMT, the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union ended 47 years after it joined.[23] Transition period and final trade agreement Conservative party advertisement from early 2020 featuring Boris Johnson answering frequently searched for online Brexit-related questions Following the British exit on 31 January 2020 the UK entered a Transition Period for the rest of 2020. Trade, travel and freedom of movement remain largely unchanged during this period.[191] The Withdrawal Agreement still applies after this date.[192] This agreement provides free access of goods between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, provided checks are made to goods entering Northern Ireland from the rest of the UK. The British Government attempted to back out of this commitment[193] by passing the Internal Market Bill: domestic legislation in the British Parliament. In September, Northern Ireland secretary Brandon Lewis said:     I would say to my hon. Friend that yes, this does break international law in a very specific and limited way.[194] leading to the resignation of Sir Jonathan Jones, permanent secretary to the Government Legal Department[195] and Lord Keen, the law officer for Scotland.[196] The European Commission started legal action.[192] During the transition period, David Frost and Michel Barnier continued to negotiate a permanent trade agreement.[197] On 24 December 2020 both parties announced that a deal had been reached.[198] The deal was passed by both houses of the British parliament on 30 December and given Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. In the House of Commons, the governing Conservatives and main opposition Labour voted in favour of the agreement whilst all other opposition parties voted against it.[199] The transition period concluded under its terms the following evening.[200] After the UK said it would unilaterally extend a grace period limiting checks on trade between Northern Ireland and Great Britain, the European Parliament postponed setting a date to ratify the agreement.[201] The vote was later scheduled for 27 April when it passed with an overwhelming majority of votes.[202][203] There was a customs transitional arrangement in place until 1 July 2021. During this time period, traders importing standard goods from the EU to the UK could defer submitting their customs declarations and paying import duties to HMRC for up to six months. This arrangement simplified and avoided most import controls during the early months of the new situation and was designed to facilitate inward trade during the cvid-19 health crisis and to avoid major disruptions in domestic supply chains in the short term.[204] Following reports that the border infrastructure was not ready, the UK government further postponed import checks from the EU to the UK until the end of the year in order to avoid supply issues during the ongoing cvid crisis.[205] This was again followed by another delay of import controls, in a situation of truck driver shortages; the controls are scheduled to be phased in during 2022.[206] United Kingdom legislation after Article 50 notification European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 Main article: European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 In October 2016, Theresa May promised a "Great Repeal Bill", which would repeal the European Communities Act 1972 and restate in British law all enactments previously in force under EU law. Subsequently renamed the European Union (Withdrawal) Bill, it was introduced into the House of Commons on 13 July 2017.[207] On 12 September 2017, the Bill passed its first vote and second reading by a margin of 326 votes to 290 votes in the House of Commons.[208] The Bill was further amended on a series of votes in both Houses. After the Act became law on 26 June 2018, the European Council decided on 29 June to renew its call on member states and European Union institutions to step up their work on preparedness at all levels and for all outcomes.[209] The Withdrawal Act fixed the period ending 21 January 2019 for the government to decide on how to proceed if the negotiations had not reached agreement in principle on both the withdrawal arrangements and the framework for the future relationship between the UK and EU; while, alternatively, making future ratification of the withdrawal agreement as a treaty between the UK and EU depend upon the prior enactment of another act of Parliament for approving the final terms of withdrawal when the Brexit negotiations were completed. In any event, the Act did not alter the two-year period for negotiating allowed by Article 50 that ended at the latest on 29 March 2019 if the UK had not by then ratified a withdrawal agreement or agreed a prolongation of the negotiating period.[210] The Withdrawal Act which became law in June 2018 allowed for various outcomes including no negotiated settlement. It authorises the government to bring into force, by order made under section 25, the provisions that fixed "exit day" and the repeal of the European Communities Act 1972, but exit day must be the same day and time as when the EU Treaties ceased to apply to the UK.[211] Exit day Exit day was the end of 31 January 2020 CET (11.00 p.m. GMT).[179] The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (as amended by a British Statutory Instrument on 11 April 2019), in section 20 (1), defined 'exit day' as 11:00 p.m. on 31 October 2019.[163] Originally, 'exit day' was defined as 11:00 p.m. on 29 March 2019 GMT (UTC+0).[210][212][213][214][215] Additional government bills A report published in March 2017 by the Institute for Government commented that, in addition to the European Union (Withdrawal) bill, primary and secondary legislation would be needed to cover the gaps in policy areas such as customs, immigration and agriculture.[216] The report also commented that the role of the devolved legislatures was unclear, and could cause problems, and that as many as 15 new additional Brexit Bills might be required, which would involve strict prioritisation and limiting Parliamentary time for in-depth examination of new legislation.[217] In 2016 and 2017, the House of Lords published a series of reports on Brexit-related subjects, including:     Brexit: the options for trade     Brexit: UK–Irish relations     Brexit: future UK–EU security and police cooperation     Brexit: fisheries     Brexit: environment and climate change     Brexit: the Crown Dependencies     Brexit: justice for families, individuals and businesses?     Brexit: trade in non-financial services Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018 The Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018, relating to withdrawal from Euratom, was presented to Parliament in October 2017. The act makes provision about nuclear safeguards, and for connected purposes. The Secretary of State may by regulations ("nuclear safeguards regulations") make provision for the purpose of – (a) ensuring that qualifying nuclear material, facilities or equipment are available only for use for civil activities (whether in the UK or elsewhere), or (b) giving effect to provisions of a relevant international agreement.[218] European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 Main article: European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 The European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 makes legal provision for ratifying the Brexit Withdrawal Agreement and incorporating it into the domestic law of the United Kingdom.[219] The bill was first introduced[220] by the government on 21 October 2019. This bill was not further debated and lapsed on 6 November when parliament was dissolved in preparation for the 2019 general election. The bill was reintroduced immediately following the general election and was the first bill to be put before the House of Commons in the first session of the 58th Parliament,[221] with changes from the previous bill, by the re-elected government and was read a first time on 19 December, immediately after the first reading of the Outlawries Bill and before the debate on the Queen's Speech began. The second reading took place on 20 December, and the third on 9 January 2020. This act was given Royal Assent on 23 January 2020, nine days before the UK left the European Union. Public opinion since the Brexit referendum Prior to 2020 Further information: Opinion polling on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union (2016–2020) Opinion polling overall showed an initial fall in support for Brexit from the referendum to late 2016, when responses were split evenly between support and opposition. Support rose again to a plurality, which held until the 2017 general election. Since then, opinion polls tended to show a plurality of support for remaining in the EU or for the view that Brexit was a mistake, with the estimated margin increasing until a small decrease in 2019 (to 53% Remain : 47% Leave, as of October 2019).[222] This seems to be largely due to a preference for remaining in the EU among those who did not vote in 2016's referendum (an estimated 2.5 million of whom, as of October 2019, were too young to vote at the time).[223][224] Other reasons suggested include slightly more Leave voters than Remain voters (14% and 12% of each, respectively, as of October 2019)[225] changing how they would vote (particularly in Labour areas) and the deaths of older voters,[222] most of whom voted to leave the EU. One estimate of demographic changes (ignoring other effects) implies that had an EU referendum taken place in October 2019, there would have been between 800,000 and 900,000 fewer Leave voters and between 600,000 and 700,000 more Remain voters, resulting in a Remain majority.[223] Local DJ Chris Gibson and his father Barry celebrate at the Cherry Burton Brexit Party in June 2016. In March 2019, a petition submitted to the British Parliament petitions website, calling on the government to revoke Article 50 and stay in the EU, reached a record-level of more than 6.1 million signatures.[226][227]     Post-referendum opinion polling (2016–2020)     Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU     Opinion polling on whether the UK was right or wrong to vote to leave the EU     Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses     Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, including "Neither" responses     Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses and normalised     Opinion polling on whether the UK should leave or remain in the EU, excluding "Neither" responses and normalised 2020–present Further information: Opinion polling on the United Kingdom rejoining the European Union (2020–present) YouGov polling has shown a gradual but progressive decline in the public perception of the benefits of Brexit, with the overall margin of sentiment about the rightness of the Brexit decision declining from slightly positive in 2016 to -11% in 2022.[228] A May 2022 poll showed that a majority of respondents who expressed an opinion thought that Brexit had gone either "badly" or "very badly".[229] No-deal planning See also: No-deal Brexit and Operation Yellowhammer On 19 December 2018, the EU Commission revealed its "no-deal" Contingency Action Plan in specific sectors, in respect of the UK leaving the EU "in 100 days' time."[230] In the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, the Department for International Trade (DIT) for reaching and extending trade agreements between the UK and non-EU states was created by Prime Minister May, shortly after she took office on 13 July 2016.[231] By 2017, it employed about 200 trade negotiators[232] and was overseen by then Secretary of State for International Trade Liam Fox. In March 2019, the British government announced that it would cut many import tariffs to zero, in the event of a no-deal Brexit.[233] The Confederation of British Industry said the move would be a "sledgehammer for our economy",[234][235][236] and the National Farmer's Union was also highly critical.[237] Additionally, the plan appeared to breach standard WTO rules.[238][234][239][240][241][242] On 2 June 2020, Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel stated that the European Union must prepare for the possible failure of Brexit trade talks with the UK. She added that negotiations were being accelerated to try and reach a deal that could be ratified by the end of the year. Her warning came as the deadline for extending talks passed, with negotiations expected to end on 31 December with or without a deal.[243] Litigation There has been litigation to explore the constitutional footings on which Brexit stands after R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (simply known as the "Miller case") and the 2017 Notification Act:     In R. (Webster) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, a Divisional Court of Gross LJ and Green MR determined that the substantive decision to leave the EU that was notified on 29 March 2017 was in fact the executive decision of the Prime Minister using a statutory power of decision found to have been delegated to her by the Notification Act: this is confirmed by the House of Commons Library commentary on the case.[244] The case was appealed to the Court of Appeal[245] and paragraph 15 of the judgement, along with the citable nature of the decision were upheld. While the case was criticised academically by Robert Craig, who lectures in jurisprudence at the London School of Economics,[246] aspects of the case's analysis were supported by the Supreme Court in Miller 2 at paragraph 57, which confirmed:     ... that Parliament, and in particular the House of Commons as the democratically elected representatives of the people, has a right to have a voice in how that change comes about is indisputable.[247]     — Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (UKSC/2019/41)     This confirmation that the decision was an executive act was part of the basis of R. (Wilson) v. Prime Minister[248] which allied this point with the concerns about the irregularities in the referendum. The High Court hearing was on 7 December 2018 before Ouseley MJ[249] and when judgement was given it was held that: courts' job was not to rule on irregularities in the 'leave' campaign as these were not questions of law; it was also said that the case was brought both too early and too late.[244] Judgement in the Court of Appeal (before Hickinbottom LJ and Haddon-Cave LJ) before also went against the applicant.[250]     Regarding the reversibility of a notification under Article 50, Wightman and others v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union was referred to the Court of Justice of the European Union;[251] the UK government sought to block this referral, taking the matter on appeal to the Supreme Court, but was unsuccessful.[252] On 10 December 2018, the Court of Justice of the EU ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its Article 50 notification.[253] Impact Main article: Impact of Brexit Ambox current red Americas.svg      This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2022) Many effects of Brexit depended on whether the UK left with a withdrawal agreement, or before an agreement was ratified ("no-deal" Brexit).[254] In 2017, the Financial Times said that there were approximately 759 international agreements, spanning 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer be a party to upon leaving the EU.[255] Border crossing at Killeen (near Newry in Northern Ireland), marked only by a speed limit in km/h (Northern Ireland uses mph) Economic effects Main article: Economic effects of Brexit Economists expected that Brexit would have damaging immediate and longer term effects on the economies of the UK and at least part of the EU27. In particular, there was a broad consensus among economists and in the economic literature that Brexit would likely reduce the UK's real per capita income in the medium and long term, and that the Brexit referendum itself would damage the economy.[82][7][8][9][10][11][256][257][258] Studies found that Brexit-induced uncertainty reduced British GDP, British national income, investment by business, employment and British international trade from June 2016 onwards.[259][260][261][262][263][264] A 2019 analysis found that British firms substantially increased offshoring to the EU after the Brexit referendum, whereas European firms reduced new investments in the UK.[265][266] The British government's own Brexit analysis, leaked in January 2018, showed that British economic growth would be stunted by 2–8% over the 15 years following Brexit, the amount depending on the leave scenario.[267][268] Economists warned that London's future as an international financial centre depended on passport agreements with the EU.[269][270] Pro-Brexit activists and politicians have argued for negotiating trade and migration agreements with the "CANZUK" countries—those of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom[271][272]—but economists have said that trade deals with those countries would be far less valuable to the UK than EU membership.[273][274][275] Studies projected that Brexit would exacerbate regional economic inequality in the UK, by hitting already-struggling regions the hardest.[276] Local and geographic effects The potential impact on the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland has been a contentious issue. Since 2005, the border has been essentially invisible.[277] After Brexit, it became the only UK–EU land border[278] (not counting the land borders EU states, Spain and Cyprus, have with British Overseas Territories). All involved parties agreed a hard border should be avoided,[279] for it might compromise the Good Friday Agreement that ended the Northern Ireland conflict.[280][281][282] To forestall this, the EU proposed a "backstop agreement" that would have kept the UK in the Customs Union and kept Northern Ireland in some aspects of the Single Market also, until a lasting solution was found.[283] The UK Parliament rejected this proposal. After further negotiations in autumn of 2019, an alternative model, the Ireland/Northern Ireland Protocol was agreed between the UK and the EU. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but EU free movement of goods rules and EU Customs Union rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a de facto customs "Irish Sea border" for goods from (but not to) Great Britain,[284][285] to the disquiet of prominent Unionists.[286] After the Brexit referendum, the Scottish Government – led by the Scottish National Party (SNP) – planned another independence referendum because Scotland voted to remain in the EU while England and Wales voted to leave.[287] It had suggested this before the Brexit referendum.[288] The First Minister of Scotland, Nicola Sturgeon, requested a referendum be held before the UK's withdrawal,[289] but the British Prime Minister rejected this timing, but not the referendum itself.[290] At the referendum in 2014, 55% of voters had decided to remain in the UK, but the referendum on Britain's withdrawal from the EU was held in 2016, with 62% of Scottish voters against it. In March 2017, the Scottish Parliament voted in favour of holding another independence referendum. Sturgeon called for a "phased return" of an independent Scotland back to the EU.[291] In 2017, if Northern Ireland remained associated with the EU – for example, by remaining in the Customs Union, some analysts argued Scotland would also insist on special treatment.[292] However, in the event, the only part of the United Kingdom which received unique treatment was Northern Ireland.[293] On 21 March 2018, the Scottish Parliament passed the Scottish Continuity Bill.[294] This was passed due to stalling negotiations between the Scottish Government and the British Government on where powers within devolved policy areas should lie after Brexit. The Act allowed for all devolved policy areas to remain within the remit of the Scottish Parliament and reduces the executive power upon exit day that the UK Withdrawal Bill provides for Ministers of the Crown.[295] The bill was referred to the UK Supreme Court, which found that it could not come into force as the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, which received royal assent between the Scottish Parliament passing its bill and the Supreme Court's judgement, designated itself under schedule 4 of the Scotland Act 1998 as unamendable by the Scottish Parliament.[296] The bill has therefore not received royal assent.[297] Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory bordering Spain, is affected by Brexit too. Spain asserts a territorial claim on Gibraltar. After the referendum, Spain's Foreign Minister renewed calls for joint Spanish–British control.[298] In late 2018, the British and Spanish governments agreed that any dispute over Gibraltar would not affect Brexit negotiations,[299] and the British government agreed that UK–EU treaties made after Brexit would not automatically apply to Gibraltar.[300] In December 2020, Spain and the UK reached an agreement in principle on future arrangements for Brexit and invited the European Commission to formalise it as a treaty. The French and British governments say they remain committed to the Le Touquet Agreement, which lets UK border checks be completed in France, and vice versa (juxtaposed controls).[301] The two governments signed the Sandhurst Treaty in January 2018, which will shorten the time taken to process migrants attempting to reach the UK from Calais, from six months to one month. The UK also announced it will invest a further £44.5 million on border security at the English Channel.[301] Effects on the European Union Main article: Impact of Brexit on the European Union Brexit caused the European Union to lose its second-largest economy, its third-most populous country,[302] and the second-largest net contributor to the EU budget.[303] The UK is no longer a shareholder in the European Investment Bank, where it had 16% of the shares.[304] The European Investment Bank's Board of Governors decided that the remaining member states would proportionally increase their capital subscriptions to maintain the same level of overall subscribed capital (EUR 243.3 billion).[305] As of March 2020, the subscribed capital of the EIB had increased by an additional EUR 5.5 billion, following the decision by two member states to increase their capital subscriptions (Poland and Romania). The EIB's total subscribed capital thus amounted to EUR 248.8 billion. Brexit did not impact the EIB Group's AAA credit rating.[306] Analyses indicated that the departure of the relatively economically liberal UK would reduce the ability of remaining economically liberal countries to block measures in the Council of the EU.[307][308] In 2019, ahead of Brexit, the European Medicines Agency and European Banking Authority moved their headquarters from London to Amsterdam and Paris, respectively.[309][310][311] Sectorial effects The UK has left the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),[312] which provides government financial support to farmers in the EU.[313] The UK receives much less than it contributes.[313] Brexit allows the UK to develop its own agriculture policy.[314] The current UK government has committed to maintaining the same payments to farmers until the end of the current parliament, even without a withdrawal agreement.Written 2019[needs update][312] The Agriculture Bill is intended to replace the CAP with a new system.[314] The UK did also leave the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)[315] that lets all EU countries fish within 12 nautical miles of the British coast[316] and lets the EU set catch quotas.[317] The combined EU fishing fleets landed about six million tonnes of fish per year, as of 2016,[318] about half of which were from British waters.[319] By leaving the CFP, the UK could develop its own fisheries policy.[317] The UK did also leave the London Fisheries Convention that lets Irish, French, Belgian, Dutch and German vessels fish within six nautical miles of the UK's coast.[320] Cars crossing into Gibraltar from Spain clearing customs formalities. Gibraltar is outside the customs union, VAT area, and Schengen Zone. Brexit poses challenges to British academia and research, as the UK loses research funding from EU sources and sees a reduction in students from the EU. Academic institutions find it harder to hire researchers from the EU and British students will face greater difficulties with studying abroad in the EU.[13] The UK was a member of the European Research Area and likely to wish to remain an associated member following Brexit.[321] The British government has guaranteed funding for research currently funded by EU.[322] An early 2019 study found that Brexit would deplete the National Health Service (NHS) workforce, create uncertainties regarding care for British nationals living in the EU, and put at risk access to vaccines, equipment, and medicines.[323] The Department of Health and Social Care has said it has taken steps to ensure the continuity of medical supplies after Brexit.[324] The number of non-British EU nurses registering with the NHS fell from 1,304 in July 2016 to 46 in April 2017.[325][needs update] Under the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018, EU laws will no longer have supremacy over British laws after Brexit.[326] To maintain continuity, the Act converts EU law into British law as "retained EU law". After Brexit, the British parliament (and the devolved legislatures) can decide which elements of that law to keep, amend or repeal.[326] Furthermore, British courts will no longer be bound by the judgments of the EU Court of Justice after Brexit. After Brexit, the UK is able to control immigration from the EU and EEA,[327] as it can end EU freedom of movement. The current British government intends to replace it with a new system[needs update] The government's 2018 white paper proposes a "skills-based immigration system" that prioritises skilled migrants. EU and EEA citizens already living in the UK can continue living there after Brexit by applying to the EU Settlement Scheme, which began in March 2019. Irish citizens will not have to apply to the scheme.[328][329][330] Studies estimate that Brexit and the end of free movement will likely result in a large decline in immigration from EEA countries to the UK.[12][331] After Brexit, any foreigner wanting to do so more than temporarily would need a work permit.[332][333] By leaving the EU, the UK would leave the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA), a single market in commercial air travel,[334] but could negotiate a number of different future relationships with the EU.[334] British airlines would still have permission to operate within the EU with no restrictions, and vice versa. The British government seeks continued participation in the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).[334] The UK has its own air service agreements with 111 countries, which permit flights to-and-from the country, and further 17 countries through its EU membership.[335] These have since been replaced. Ferries will continue, but with obstacles such as customs checks.[336] New ferry departures between the Republic of Ireland and the European mainland have been established.[336] As of August 2020, the government's Goods Vehicle Movement Service, an IT system essential to post-Brexit goods movements, was still only in the early stages of beta testing, with four months to go before it is required to be in operation.[337] Concerns were raised by European lawmakers, including Michel Barnier, that Brexit might create security problems for the UK given that its law enforcement and counter-terrorism forces would no longer have access to the EU's security databases.[338] Some analysts have suggested that the severe economic impact of the cvid-19 pandemic in the UK has masked the economic impact of Brexit in 2021.[339] In December 2021, the Financial Times quoted a range of economists as saying that the economic impact of Brexit on the UK economy and living standards "appears to be negative but uncertain".[340] According to the Office for Budget Responsibility, the new trade agreement between the EU and UK could, over time, result in a 4% reduction in British productivity, compared with its level had the 2016 EU referendum gone the other way.[341] Brexit was widely described as a factor contributing to the 2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis, in which panic buying led to serious disruption of road fuel supplies across the UK, as it exacerbated the UK's shortage of HGV drivers.[342][343][344] In a July 2021 report, the Road Haulage Association estimated the UK faced a shortage of up to 100,000 truck drivers.[345][346][347] Cultural references Main article: Brexit in popular culture Brexit has inspired many creative works, such as murals, sculptures, novels, plays, movies and video games. The response of British artists and writers to Brexit has in general been negative, reflecting a reported overwhelming percentage of people involved in Britain's creative industries voting against leaving the European Union.[348] Despite issues around immigration being central in the Brexit debate, British artists left the migrants' perspective largely unexplored. However, Brexit also inspired UK-based migrant artists to create new works and "claim agency over their representation within public spaces and create a platform for a new social imagination that can facilitate transnational and trans-local encounters, multicultural democratic spaces, sense of commonality, and solidarity."[349]     Anti-Brexit protest in Manchester (2017) by German sculptor Jacques Tilly, with an effigy depicting Conservative MPs David Davis, Michael Gove, Boris Johnson and Theresa May     Anti-Brexit protest in Manchester (2017) by German sculptor Jacques Tilly, with an effigy depicting Conservative MPs David Davis, Michael Gove, Boris Johnson and Theresa May     Düsseldorf carnival parade in February 2018 by German sculptor Jacques Tilly, with an effigy of Prime Minister Theresa May giving birth to a misshapen Brexit     Düsseldorf carnival parade in February 2018 by German sculptor Jacques Tilly, with an effigy of Prime Minister Theresa May giving birth to a misshapen Brexit See also     flagEuropean Union portal iconModern history portal iconPolitics portal flagUnited Kingdom portal     International reactions to the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum     Opposition to Brexit in the United Kingdom     Referendums related to the European Union     Multi-speed Europe     Interpretation of EU Treaty law by European Court of Justice     2010s in United Kingdom political history     2020s in United Kingdom political history     Danish withdrawal from the European Union     Dutch withdrawal from the European Union     Frexit     Greek withdrawal from the eurozone     Hungarian withdrawal from the European Union     Polexit     Romanian withdrawal from the European Union Notes The UK also left the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom).     Greenland left the EC on 1 February 1985. 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ISBN 978-3-030-39914-6. S2CID 226721346. Further reading     Ansorg, N. & Haastrup, T.: "Brexit Beyond the UK's Borders: What It Means for Africa", GIGA Focus Afrika No. 03/2016     Barnier, Michel (2021). My Secret Brexit Diary: A Glorious Illusion. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-1509550869.     Clarke, Harold D.; Goodwin, Matthew; Whiteley, Paul (2017). Brexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the European Union. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1316605042.     Clarke, John; Newman, Janet (2 January 2017). "'People in this country have had enough of experts': Brexit and the paradoxes of populism". Critical Policy Studies. 11 (1): 101–116. doi:10.1080/19460171.2017.1282376. ISSN 1946-0171. S2CID 152164548.     Culkin, Nigel; Simmons, Richard (2018). Tales of Brexits Past and Present: Understanding the Choices, Threats and Opportunities In Our Separation from the EU. Bingley: Emerald Publishing. ISBN 978-1787694385.     Evans, Geoffrey; Menon, Anand (2017). Brexit and British Politics. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-1509523863.     Freedland, Jonathan, "Fools Rush Out", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 30, 32, 34–35.     Freedman, Lawrence D. "Britain Adrift: The United Kingdom's Search for a Post-Brexit Role". Foreign Affairs (May/June 2020) 39#3 pp. 118–130.     Hayton, Richard. "British conservatism after the vote for Brexit: The ideological legacy of David Cameron". British Journal of Politics and International Relations 20.1 (2018): 223–238. online     Hobolt, Sara B. (2016). "The Brexit vote: a divided nation, a divided continent" (PDF). Journal of European Public Policy. 23 (9): 1259–1277. doi:10.1080/13501763.2016.1225785. ISSN 1350-1763. S2CID 158006844.     Oliver, Tim (2018). Understanding Brexit: A concise introduction. Bristol: Policy Press. ISBN 978-1447346395.     O'Rourke, Kevin (2019). A Short History of Brexit: From Brentry to Backstop. London: Pelican. ISBN 978-0241398272.     O'Toole, Fintan (2018). Heroic Failure: Brexit and the Politics of Pain. London: Apollo. ISBN 978-1789540987.     Outhwaite, William (ed.) Brexit: Sociological Responses. (London: Anthem Press, 2017). ISBN 978-1783086443     Peers, Steve (2016). The Brexit: The Legal Framework for Withdrawal from the EU or Renegotiation of EU Membership. Oxford: Hart Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84946-874-9. OCLC 917161408.     Rogers, Ivan (2019). 9 Lessons in Brexit. London: Short Books. ISBN 978-1780723990.     Shaw, Martin (2022). Political Racism: Brexit and Its Aftermath. Agenda. ISBN 978-1-78821-508-4.     Shipman, Tim. All Out War: The Full Story of How Brexit Sank Britain's Political Class (2016) excerpt     Shipman, Tim. Fall Out: A Year of Political Mayhem (William Collins, 2018), on Brexit debates in 2017 External links Brexit at Wikipedia's sister projects     Definitions from Wiktionary     Media from Commons     News from Wikinews     Texts from Wikisource     Resources from Wikiversity     Data from Wikidata     Early Parliamentary General Election Bill 2019–20, Progress in Parliament Archived 31 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine     British government's Brexit information     British government's official negotiation documents     European Parliament – Brexit impact studies     Brexit news on Eur-Lex website     Legal Effect of the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland, Attorney General's advice to Prime Minister, 13 November 2018     British government's Explainer (for the withdrawal agreement) 14 November 2018     House of Lords report analysing the proposed Withdrawal Agreement, 5 December 2018     EU's official negotiation documents     British Parliament – Brexit News     Reading list of post-EU Referendum publications by Parliament and the Devolved Assemblies – House of Commons Library     Record of Brexit-related business in the devolved legislatures (Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) – House of Commons Library     Gov.UK – Department for Exiting the European Union     BBC: "Brexit: What are the options?" (10 October 2016)     BBC: "Brexit vote: What could happen next?" (17 December 2018)     The Brexit Papers, Bar Council, December 2016     "Plan for Britain: The government's negotiating objectives for exiting the EU": PM's speech delivered and published on 17 January 2017 – transcript of speech as delivered at Lancaster House, London     The United Kingdom's exit from and new partnership with the European Union, February 2017 ("White paper")     Brexit at Curlie     Quotes about Brexit on Euronews     European Council Brexit Guidelines     "The economic effects of the government's proposed Brexit deal" Archived 27 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine—National Institute of Economic and Social Research, November 2018     How will Brexit affect the UK's manufacturing industry? UK Trade Policy Observatory, February 2018     The real post-Brexit options Archived 19 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine Lecture by Ivan Rogers at the University of Glasgow, 23 May 2018     "What are the options for the UK's trading relationship with the EU after Brexit?" Archived 22 October 2019 at the Wayback Machine UK in a Changing Europe, King's College London, December 2018     "Brexit phrasebook: a guide to the talks' key terms"—The Guardian, 23 November 2018     "Lord Ashcroft: How the United Kingdom voted on EU referendum day – and why" Conservative Home, 17 March 2019     Explanatory Memorandum for the Withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union (Consequential Provisions) Bill 2019 introduced by the Irish government in the legislature (Oireachtas)     EU Council decision, 22 March 2019, extending the negotiating period Relating to court cases     Judgment of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in R (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union     Judgment of the European Court of Justice in the Wightman case: Right of unilateral revocation of the notification     Wilson v Prime Minister (2018) EWHC 3520 (Admin) Archived 16 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine     Ewan McGaughey "Could Brexit be Void?" "King's Law Journal", Volume 29, 2018, Issue 3     UK withdrawal from the European Union: Legal and procedural issues European Parliamentary Research Service, March 2017     Ronan McCrea. "The legal issues of revoking the notification to leave the EU – but then notifying to leave again". London School of Economics, 20 December 2018     vte Brexit     Renegotiation Referendum         results Brexit negotiations Brexit withdrawal agreement Trade negotiation Trade and Cooperation Agreement Timeline Referendum question     "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?" Referendum legislation         European Union Referendum Act 2015         Gibraltar European Union Referendum (Date of Referendum etc.) Regulations 2016 The European Union Referendum (Conduct) Regulations 2016 Background     Treaties         Rome 1972 Accession Treaty Single European Act Maastricht Amsterdam Nice European Constitution Lisbon United Kingdom opt-outs from EU legislation Legislation         European Communities Act 1972         Amendments: 1986 1993 1998 2002 2008 2011 European Economic Area Act 1993 Proposed bills         European Union Bill 2004–05 European Communities Act 1972 (Repeal) Bills European Union (Referendum) Bill 2013–14 Elections         2014 European Parliament election 2015 general election By-elections         2014 Clacton 2014 Heywood and Middleton 2014 Rochester and Strood Other         UK accession 1973 EC enlargement UK membership 1975 EC membership referendum UK rebate Bruges speech No. No. No. Black Wednesday EEA Maastricht Rebels UK Opt-outs The European Union: In or Out Bloomberg speech Russian interference 2015–16 renegotiation Euroscepticism in the UK Campaign         Issues Opinion polling Endorsements Project Fear Unlawful campaigning allegations Brexit: The Movie Campaign organisations     Remain         Britain Stronger in Europe (official campaign) Labour In for Britain Leave         Vote Leave (official campaign) Leave.EU BeLeave Grassroots Out Labour Leave Campaign for an Independent Britain The Freedom Association         Better Off Out Get Britain Out Bruges Group Aftermath of referendum     Political party leadership elections         Conservative         2016 2019 Scottish, Feb 2020 Labour UKIP Opposition to Brexit         Proposed second referendum         People's Vote Petition to revoke Article 50 Led By Donkeys Bollocks to Brexit Elections         2017 local 2017 general 2018 local 2019 local 2019 European Parliament         Brexit Party 2019 general By-elections         2016 Witney 2016 Richmond Park 2016 Sleaford and North Hykeham 2017 Copeland 2017 Stoke-on-Trent Central 2019 Peterborough 2019 Brecon and Radnorshire Other         International reactions March to Leave Brexit Alliance Blue Collar Conservativism Brexit Party Independent Alliance for Reform Brexit process         Miller I case Invocation of Article 50 Negotiations         Brexit divorce bill 2017 2018 2019 Withdrawal agreement         Parliamentary votes No-deal Brexit         Operation Yellowhammer Prorogation of Parliament         Miller II / Cherry case Trade negotiation between the UK and the EU         Fish for finance EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) Impact of Brexit and potential effects     on Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland         Brexit and the Irish border Northern Ireland Protocol         proposed changes Irish Sea border Other         on Gibraltar on the EU Science and technology Economic effects Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union Brexit legislation     White papers         Brexit plan Repeal Bill plan Chequers plan Brexit withdrawal agreement plan Enacted         Notification of Withdrawal Act 2017 Withdrawal Act 2018 (Gibraltar) Nuclear Safeguards Act 2018 Cooper–Letwin Act Benn Act Withdrawal Agreement Act 2020 (Gibraltar) Internal Market Act 2020 Future Relationship Act 2020 UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Continuity) (Scotland) Act 2020 Proposed         Terms of Withdrawal from EU (Referendum) Bills UK Withdrawal from the European Union (Legal Continuity) (Scotland) Bill 2018 European Union Withdrawal Agreement (Public Vote) Bill 2017–19 Related         Brexit 50p coin Change Britain Change UK European Research Group "Enemies of the People" Leave Means Leave Led By Donkeys More United Northern Future Forum The New European Open Britain Proposed second Scottish independence referendum Rue du Brexit Terminology (Glossary) Tufton Street United Ireland Voting pencil conspiracy theory Media depictions         Remainiacs (2017) Postcards from the 48% (2018) Not Tonight (2018) Brexit: The Uncivil War (2019) @BorderIrish (2018–2020)     Category Authority control Edit this at Wikidata National libraries         France (data) Germany Israel United States Latvia Other         SUDOC (France)         1 Categories:     Brexit2010s neologismsEnglish words and phrasesEuroscepticism in the United KingdomPortmanteausUnited Kingdom and the European Union
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